1. Functions of Families: Survival of offspring Economic Function Cultural Training

2. Socialization: Process through which children acquire values, knowledge, skills, and behaviors appropriate for their culture

3. Methods of Socialization Parents are: Direct Instructors: Teaching, advising Indirect Socializers: Modeling

4. Providers/managers of opportunities: Control exposure to experiences (e.g., toys, other children, activities) –Particularly prominent when children are younger

5. Age-Related Changes in Socialization As infants become mobile, parents typically increase their attempts to control infants’ behavior

6. Between 12-18 months, children show an increasing ability to comply with parental requests/directions –“Don’t touch!” –“Come here”

7. As children get older, parents gradually increase their expectations for mature behavior

8. Parental behavior varies along at least two dimensions –Responsiveness/Acceptance –Control (“Demandingness”)

9. Authoritarian High control Low acceptance/responsiveness Power-assertive discipline Ex: “Do it because I say so” More likely to use physical punishment

10. Authoritative High acceptance/responsiveness Moderate control –Set clear standards and consistently enforce rules –Responsive to children’s needs and point of view

11. Discipline based on reasoning/explanation –“It’s not ok to hit people because it hurts them.”

12. Permissive High acceptance/responsiveness Low control –Make few demands for mature behavior

13. Neglecting/Disengaged Low acceptance/responsiveness Low control Parents often overwhelmed by stress; have little time/energy for children

14. Authoritarian Childhood: Anxious Unhappy Dependent/Easily Frustrated (esp. girls) Hostile/Aggressive (esp. boys)

15. Neglecting/Disengaged Childhood: –Low self-control –Low self-esteem –Disturbed attachment relationships (disorganized)

16. Authoritarian Adolescence: Poorer social skills and lower academic achievement than children of authoritative parents Better school performance and less problem behavior (e.g., drug use, truancy) than children of permissive or neglecting parents

17. Authoritative Childhood: –High self-esteem –High self-control –Generally positive mood

18. Authoritative Adolescence: –Good social skills –High academic achievement –Low in problem behaviors (e.g., drug use, truancy)

19. Permissive Childhood: Low self-control Overly demanding and dependent on adults

20. Permissive Adolescence: –Low academic achievement –More problem behaviors (e.g., truancy; drug use)

21. Neglecting/Disengaged Adolescence: –Low academic achievement –Poor social skills –Many problem behaviors Truancy, drug use, delinquency, sexual promiscuity, depression

22. Bidirectional Influences How do children’s characteristics and behavior affect parenting style?

23. Infants and children with difficult temperaments are more likely to receive less optimal parenting Less optimal parenting increases children’s problem behaviors Negative cycle of interaction can be established

24. Correlation vs. Causation Most research on parenting styles is correlational –Can’t randomly assign kids to different kinds of parents –Therefore, can’t infer cause-and-effect relationships Can’t say that parenting style CAUSES children’s behavior (positive or negative)

25. However, some research has examined experimental parenting interventions –Interventions: Designed to improve parenting behavior Use random assignment—some families receive the intervention and others do not Can infer cause-and-effect relationships

26. Experimental parenting interventions have shown improvements in parenting behavior and improvements in children’s adjustment

27. Parenting styles (and their “effects”) may not generalize to all ethnic groups –Chinese parents more likely to be classified as authoritarian (high control) –Authoritative parenting does not have more positive effects than authoritarian parenting for 1 st generation Chinese-American children