1. LEARNING I: TYPES, THEORIES, STYLES AND MEASUREMENT

2. Learning objectives be able to define learning
understand the nature of explicit and implicit learning
understand the nature of mental rehearsal
understand selected cognitive theories of learning
understand how dynamic systems theory explains learning
understand how learning and coaching/teaching styles affect learning
understand the practical implications for coaches/teachers and performers
understand how we measure performance in order to infer learning

3. Learning
A relatively permanent change in performance resulting from practice or experience (Kerr, 1982)
Performance is a temporary occurrence fluctuating from time to time: something which is transitory (Kerr, 1982)
We mostly infer learning from performance, therefore we should be aware of the differences between the two

4. Types of learning Explicit learning The ‘normal’ way of learning
Normally we are given instructions or demonstrations
We may set out to copy someone
We consciously form explicit rules
It is a working memory task
In the early stages of learning sports skills, the prefrontal cortex, primary motor cortex, basal ganglia, parietal cortex and occipital cortex are the main areas activated
Prefrontal cortex is probably responsible for the acquisition of explicit rules
Motor and perceptual regions are responsible for the learning of the perceptual-motor factors involved
During the consolidation phase, the hippocampus is activated
When the skill becomes automatic it is controlled by the motor cortex, supplementary motor area, basal ganglia and parietal cortex
Cerebellum may also be involved

5. Types of learning Implicit learning
Non-intentional automatic acquisition of knowledge about structural relations between objects or events (Frensch, 1998)
No formation of explicit rules
The learning is subconscious
The knowledge acquired by implicit learning is non-declarative knowledge and is stored in non-declarative LTM
During the early stage of learning implicitly, the motor cortex, supplementary motor area, basal ganglia and parietal cortex are highly activated
Same areas are activated during automatic stages
Cerebellum also plays a large role in the later stages of the learning of some skills

6. b
BASAL
GANGLIA
SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX
PRIMARY MOTOR CORTEX
SMA
PMC
SOMATOSENSORY
ASSOCIATION AREA
VISUAL CORTEX
VISUAL ASSOCIATION AREA
CEREBELLUM
AUDITORY CORTEX
AUDITORY ASSOCIATION AREA
PREFRONTAL CORTEX
DLPFC a
HIPPOCAMPUS
AMYGDALA
HYPOTHALAMUS
RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM
Major brain regions involved in learning, highlighted in yellow. a) shows a lateral view of the left-hemisphere. The basal ganglia are not visible: their position within the brain is depicted in b).
DLPFC dorsolateral prefrontal cortex: PMC premotor cortex: SMA supplementary motor area

7. Types of learning Mental rehearsal
Mental rehearsal only works in conjunction with physical rehearsal
If we think about doing something, the brain learns the same, or almost the same, as when we actually carry out the task
By thinking about the skill, we build up a picture or model in our brain of how the skill should be performed
The most common form of mental rehearsal is through mental imagery
Using external imagery the person sees themselves performing a skill as though they were looking at a film of themselves
Using internal imagery the person sees and feels the movement ‘from within’ their brain and body
This is more effective

8. Learning theories: Fitts and Posner’s three-stage theory
Cognitive stage
Person tries to make sense of instructions
They make a great deal of use of verbal labels
In skills requiring perception and decision-making, there are often mistakes made and the person attends to irrelevant as well as relevant stimuli
The motor component is characterized by crude, uncoordinated movement
Prefrontal cortex is highly activated
Associative stage
Practice is required to perfect the skill
Autonomous stage
Person can perform consistently and with little overt cognitive activity

9. Learning theories: Gentile’s model of learning (Stage 1)
Initial acquisition stage
Learner gets the basic idea of what the movement involves
Learns to differentiate between relevant and irrelevant cues
Selective attention is developed
Action plan is formulated
Individual uses feedback to correct inappropriate responses and to reinforce correct movements
LTM store is developed
Perception, decision, efferent organization and feedback are seen as the key factors

10. Learning theories: Gentile’s model of learning (Stage 2)
Skill refinement stage
Fixation
refinement of closed skills
Diversification
ability to use movements in open skills

11. Learning theories: Adam’s closed-loop theory
We develop two memory traces
Perceptual trace
Memory for the feel of the movement
This allows us to correct inappropriate actions
Memory trace
Memory for selection and initiation of the movement
Two stages of acquisition
Verbal-motor stage
Use of verbal labels
Person attends to irrelevant as well as relevant stimuli
The motor component is characterized by crude, uncoordinated movement
Practice required
Motor stage
Performance is autonomous

12. Learning theories: Schmidt’s schema theory
A schema is a set of generalized rules or rules that are generic to a group of movements
We develop two memory traces
Recall memory
Memory for choice and initiation of action
Recognition memory
Memory for feel of the movement
Allows evaluation of ongoing movement and making changes to that movement

13. Schmidt’s schema theory: acquisition of schemas
We develop two schemas
Recall schema. We remember
the desired outcome
the initial conditions (e.g. the display at the beginning of the movement)
the response parameters (i.e. changes in specifics of the movement for this particular response)
Recognition schema. We remember
the initial conditions
the sensory consequences (what we expect the movement to feel like)
The development of the schemas is controlled by error labelling
Comparison of desired and actual outcomes

14. Learning theories: Anderson’s adaptive control of thought (ACT
Learning theories: Anderson’s adaptive control of thought (ACT*) theory
We firstly develop declarative knowledge
Explicit knowledge of rules about what and how to perform a skill
The we develop procedural knowledge
Being able to carry out the skill
Declarative knowledge leads to procedural knowledge

15. Learning theories: Bandura’s observational learning theory
We learn by observation of the behaviour of others and the consequences of that behaviour
Observation can be deliberate or incidental
Mental imagery and verbal coding aid learning but
Physical practice is essential

16. Dynamic systems theory and learning
Practice leads to attunement to affordances
Learning by trial and error or guided discovery
Manipulation of constraints (task, environmental and organismic) aids learning
This will lead to attunement to affordances and
Self-organization
In the early stages of learning, the degrees of freedom should be ‘frozen’ to make acquisition easier
In the later stages they should be ‘unfrozen’ to allow for higher levels of skill

17. Learning styles Four basic styles have been identified
Individuals may utilize more than one style
Activists or accommodators
Open-minded and willing to became involved immediately in trying out the new skill
Males more activist than females
Reflectors or divergers
Think through a problem before trying to perform a skill
They will work out alternative methods of performing a skill
Like to work in small groups or pairs
Theorists or assimilators
Analytical
Pragmatic or convergent
Like to find out the answers using action rather than reflection

18. Learning and coaching/teaching styles
Martens (1987)
Command-cooperative continuum
Command
Practice and training are organized by the coach
Coach tells the athletes what to do.
Cooperative
Coach involves the athletes in organization and decision making concerning what is to be done and even how it is to be done

19. Mosston’s teaching styles
Description
Command
Coach makes all decisions and instructs learners during practice: everyone practices the same tasks, at the same level of difficulty
Practice
Coach makes all decisions but learners progress at own rate depending on their ability level
Reciprocal
Athletes coach one another
Self-check
Athletes assess their own success and failure
Inclusion
Athlete and coach decide on what is to be learned and the coaching methods to be used
Guided discovery
Athlete makes all decisions guided by the coach
Divergent
Coach sets problems for athletes to solve
Individual programme-learner’s design
Learner decides on what is to be coached
Learner’s initiated style
Coach only helps when asked
Self-teaching
Athlete takes sole responsibility for all aspects of learning
A continuum from autocratic styles through cooperative to self-teaching

20. Measurement of learning
We can not actually measure learning, we can only infer it based on performance
Types of measurement
Retention tests
Retention is the persistence of performance over a period of no practice
Transfer tests
Performing the skill in a different setting
Performance curves
Plotting graphs of trials

21. Retention tests PRE-TEST
Typical design for measuring the effectiveness of a learning treatment. A transfer test could replace the post- and retention tests.
TREATMENT
POST-TEST
RETENTION
TEST
POST-RETENTION TEST

22. Dependent variables
Dependent variables are the measures or scores that we use
Distance in a long jump
Time in a race
Subjective judgment in a gymnastics competition
We should never just use one score because performance varies
We need to measure several attempts or trials
It is better to include a measure of variation as well as mean or total scores
We can compare pre-treatment totals or means to post- and retention totals or means
We can calculate changes from the pre-test score known as delta (Δ)

23. Performance curves S C O R
The dots represent scores on each trial. The dotted line is a smoothed curve which gives us a better idea of how the learner is developing.
TRIALS

24. Types of curve
Steady progress from start. Somewhat rare, only occurs with easy tasks.
Slow start but then accelerates
Very slow start, no learning shown. Followed by rapid acceleration but then plateaus. Learning is probably occurring in early stage but not enough to show physically.
POSITIVELY ACCELERATED
LINEARLY ACCELERATED
Fast start but then slows
OGIVE OR S-SHAPED
NEGATIVELY ACCELERATED

25. Plateau effect
There is a period of no apparent learning. As with the ogive curve, it probably is occurring but not sufficiently to be shown physically.
PLATEAU

26. Summary Learning can be explicit or implicit
Information processing theories of learning place the emphasis on the development of memory representations in the brain
Dynamical Systems theory sees practice and learning as being synonymous
By practising you become attuned to affordance and develop self-organization of muscles, nerves and limbs
We can not actually measure learning but merely infer it from practice