1. LECTURE # 2 RELATIVITY II NEWTONIAN RELATIVITY- GALILEAN TRANSFORMATIONS - EINSTEIN PHYS 420-SPRING 2006 Dennis Papadopoulos Acknowledge contributions from Chris Reynolds http://www.astro.umd.edu/~chris/Teaching/teaching.html and Nick Strobel's Astronomy Noteshttp://www.astro.umd.edu/~chris/Teaching/teaching.html Nick Strobel's Astronomy Notes

2. I: SPECIAL RELATIVITY WHY AND WHAT “ SR AROSE FROM NESSECITY, FROM SERIOUS AND DEEP CONTRADICTIONS IN THE OLD THEORY FROM WHICH THERE SEEMED NO ESCAPE” EINSTEIN 1905 RELATIVITY POSTULATES: 1.THE LAWS OF PHYSICS ARE INVARIANT IN INERTIAL REFERENCE FRAMES. 2.SPEED OF LIGHT IN VACUUM IS CONSTANT INDEPENDENT OF MOTION OF SOURCE AND OBSERVER

3. FRAME OF REFERENCE WHAT IS A FRAME OF REFERENCE ? THE PROSPECTIVE FROM WHICH A SYSTEM IS OBSERVED Car moving to left for one observer and to the right for the other. Both agree that is moving south. To translate their observations we need a transformation. In this case a rotation by 180 degrees A set of axis relative to which an observer can measure at any time the position, motion and orientation of all points in a system

4. INERTIAL FRAME OF REFERENCE A COORDINATE SYSTEM DEFINED BY THE NON- ACCELERATING MOTION OF OBJECTS THAT HAVE A COMMON DIRECTION AND SPEED x y V=0 Red arrow  constant velocity Green inertial frames Red non-inertial frame Is the Earth an inertial frame ?

6. THE SPEED OF LIGHT PROBLEM

7. c c

8. TRUTH AND CONSEQUENCES WHAT IS SPEED ? WHAT DISTANCE AN OBJECT WILL TRAVEL IN A GIVEN DURATION OF TIME V=DX/DT DISTANCE IS A NOTION ABOUT SPACE – HOW MUCH SPACE IS BETWEEN TWO POINTS DURATION IS A NOTION ABOUT TIME – HOW MUCH TIME ELAPSES BETWEEN EVENTS SPEED IS A SPACE-TIME NOTION – CONSTANCY OF SPEED OF LIGHT REQUIRES THAT WE MODIFY CONVENTIONAL CONCEPTS OF SPACE AND TIME

9. NEWTON’S WORRIES ABOUT GRAVITY Newton’s had big concerns about his own gravitaional theory! Gravitation force somehow (mysteriously) could reach across large distances – it was an “action at a distance”. Newton’s didn’t like that. Newton’s static universe –Newton imagined that the Universe was infinite and full of stationary stars, each exerting a gravitational force on the others. –Turns out that this configuration (and any other that Newton could think of) is unstable… the smallest disturbance and it will collapse.

10. II:FRAMES OF REFERENCE We have already come across idea of frames of reference that move with constant velocity. In such frames, Newton’s law’s (esp. N1) hold. These are called inertial frames of reference. Suppose you are in an accelerating car looking at a freely moving object (i.e., one with no forces acting on it). You will see its velocity changing because you are accelerating! In accelerating frames of reference, N1 doesn’t hold – this is a non-inertial frame of reference

11. III:NEWTONIAN PRINCIPLE OF RELATIVITY THE LAWS OF MECHANICS ARE INVARIANT IN INERTIAL REFERENCE FRAMES THE LAWS OF PHYSICS ARE COVARIANT IN INERTIAL REFERENCE FRAMES. EG: Play ping-pong on a train moving with constant velocity same as playing on the ground. No mechanical experiment can detect motion at constant speed LAWS THAT EXHIBIT THE SAME MATHEMATICAL FORM FOR ALL OBSERVERS ARE CALLED COVARIANT

12. Fig. 1-1, p. 4 Experiment at rest Experiment in moving frame Same result. Ball rises and ends up in the thrower’s hand. Ball in the air the same length of time. Experiment looks different from ground observer (parabolic trajectory, speed as a function of time) and observer on the truck. However, they both agree on the validity of Newton’s laws.

13. Fig. 1-1a, p. 4 x y x(t)=0 y(t)=v y t-1/2gt 2

14. Fig. 1-1b, p. 4 x’ y’ x’(t)=ut u Assumed t invariant

15. Fig. 1-2, p. 4 CLOCKS SYNCHRONIZED AT t=0 (t=t’=0) AND ORIGINS COINCIDE

16. GALILEAN TRANSFORMATIONS From http://hyperphysics.phy- astr.gsu.edu

17. Photo by Andrew DavidhazyAndrew Davidhazy V. LIGHT We all have enough common sense to know that waves need a medium, such as water, in which to propagate. That medium is a reference frame which may be: At rest with respect to an observer Moving with respect to an observer -or- Assume Galilean velocity transformation holds: isotropic If light is wave in what medium propagates ?

18. From T. Ferris : “Coming of Age in the Milky Way” ETHER

19. MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS Maxwell’s highly successful equations… Contain a constant velocity! In the 19 th century, these equations were thought to hold only in the luminiferous ether! Gauss’ law no magnetic monopoles Faraday’s law Ampere’s law

20. from wikipedia Light must travel through a medium: hypothesize that a “luminiferous ether” exists Earth is moving with respect to the ether (or the ether is moving with respect to the earth), so there should be some directional/season dependent change in the speed of light as observed from the reference frame of the earth.

21. Fig. 1-3, p. 7

22. Fig. 1-3a, p. 7

23. Fig. 1-3b, p. 7

24. Fig. 1-3c, p. 7

25. Fig. 1-4, p. 8

26. Wavelength   Distance from one crest to the next Frequency   Number of crests per second Period T=1/  v the speed of the wave Waves interfere, reflect refract and exhbit Doppler Shift

27. += Destructive interference Zero amplitude and energy + = Constructive interference Double amplitude and 4 times energy

28. Doppler Effect Doppler shift z = ( rec - em )/ em =V/c Negative z blue shift, positive z redshift Wavelength

30. Interference in two slit experiment

31. Fig. 1-6, p. 9

32. Original Apparatus Q: Can anyone guess why the invention of lasers made the Michelson-Morley experiment more convincing?. Light travels very fast so you are looking at very subtle difference-use several passes to multiply the effect. Need to select light of a particular frequency to detect any shift.

33. The speed of light in vacuum has the same value, c=300000000 m/s, in all inertial reference frames, regardless of the velocity of the observer or the velocity of the source emitting the light. All the laws of physics have the same form in all inertial reference frames. The Solution??? Oh my goodness…how can that be right??? Alright … we know that Newtonian mechanics worked in all inertial reference frames under Galilean transformations, but does the same hold true for Maxwell ’ s equations of electromagnetism?

34. The radical consequences Speed = distance traveled time elapsed If the speed of light is a constant … then … length and time must be variables?? speed of light = 670 616 629 miles per hour These effects are known as length contraction and time dilation. How come you never noticed this before, and how come most of the time I can get away with Galilean transformations in your calculations? Most of the time the speed of the object whose motion you are calculating is do slow relative to the speed of light that the discrepancy due to relativity is negligible. (Most, but not all of the time)