1. Chapter 3 Organizational Environments and Cultures
Management Principles
Chapter 3 Organizational Environments and Cultures
Craig W. Fontaine, Ph.D.

2. Characteristics of External Environments
Environmental change
Environmental complexity
Resource scarcity
Uncertainty
We begin by examining the characteristics of a changing external environment: environmental change, environmental complexity, resource scarcity, and uncertainty.

3. Environmental Change
The rate at which a company’s general and specific environments change.
Stable
slow rate of change
Dynamic
fast rate of change
To some extent, every company faces changes in its environment, whether it’s due to changing consumer tastes, new government regulations, or the presence of competitors. The rate of these changes, however, is different depending on whether the company is in a stable environment or a dynamic environment.

4. Environmental Complexity
Simple
few environmental factors that affect organizations
Complex
many environmental factors that affect organizations
Environmental complexity refers to the number and intensity of factors in the external environment that affect organizations. Simple environments have few environmental factors that affect organizations, whereas complex environments have many environmental factors that affect organizations.

5. Resource Scarcity
The abundance or shortage of critical resources in an organization’s external environment.

6. Uncertainty
The extent to which managers can understand or predict the external changes and trends affecting their business.

7. Two kinds of external environments influence organizations: the general environment and the specific environment. The general environment consists of the economy and the technological, sociocultural, and political/legal trends that indirectly affect all organizations. Changes in any sector of the general environment eventually affect most organizations. Each organization also has a specific environment that is unique to that firm’s industry and directly affects the way it conducts day-to-day business.
© 2014 Cengage Learning

8. Economy
A growing economy provides a favorable environment for business growth.
Business confidence indices show how confident managers are about future business growth.

9. Technological Component
Technology
an umbrella term for the knowledge, tools, and techniques used to transform inputs into outputs
Changes in technology can help companies provide better products or produce their products more efficiently.

10. Sociocultural Component
Demographic characteristics, general behavior, attitudes, and beliefs of people in a particular society

11. Political/Legal Component
The legislation, regulations, and court decisions that govern and regulate business behavior
Many managers are unaware of the potential legal risks associated with traditional managerial decisions like recruiting, hiring, and firing employees.

12. Specific Environment Customers Competitors Suppliers
Industry regulations
Advocacy groups
Each organization has a specific environment that is unique to that firm’s industry and which directly affects the way it conducts day-to-day business. The five components of the specific environment are customers, competitors, suppliers, industry regulations, and advocacy groups.

13. Customer Component Reactive customer monitoring
Identifying and addressing customer trends and problems after they occur
Proactive customer monitoring
Identifying and addressing customer needs, trends, and issues before they occur
Customers purchase products and services. Companies cannot exist without customer support. Monitoring customers’ changing wants and needs is therefore critical to business success. There are two basic strategies for monitoring customers: reactive and proactive. Reactive customer monitoring involves identifying and addressing customer trends and problems after they occur. One reactive strategy is to listen closely to customer complaints and respond to customer concerns. Proactive monitoring of customers means identifying and addressing customer needs, trends, and issues before they occur.

14. Competitor Component Competitors Competitive analysis
companies in the same industry that sell similar products or services
Competitive analysis
a process of monitoring the competition that involves identifying competition, anticipating their moves, and determining their strengths and weaknesses
Surprisingly, managers often do a poor job of identifying potential competitors because they tend to focus on only two or three well-known competitors with similar goals and resources. Another mistake managers may make when analyzing the competition is to underestimate potential competitors’ capabilities. When this happens, managers don’t take the steps they should to continue to improve their products or services.

15. Supplier Component Suppliers Supplier dependence vs. Buyer dependence
companies that provide material, human, financial, and informational resources to other companies
Supplier dependence
vs.
Buyer dependence
Suppliers are companies that provide material, human, financial, and informational resources to other companies. A key factor influencing the impact and quality of the relationship between companies and their suppliers is how dependent they are on each other.33 Supplier dependence is the degree to which a company relies on that supplier because of the importance of the supplier’s product to the company and the difficulty of finding other sources for that product. Buyer dependence is the degree to which a supplier relies on a buyer because of the importance of that buyer to the supplier’s sales and the difficulty of finding other buyers of its products.

16. Behaviors Opportunistic behavior Relationship behavior
when one party benefits at the expense of another
Relationship behavior
focuses on establishing a mutually beneficial, long-term relationship between buyers and sellers
How important is relationship behavior? Researchers examined the relationships between auto suppliers and eight major automakers in Japan, Korea, and the United States and found that, in cases where a lack of trust existed between suppliers and buyers, procurement costs could be as much as five times higher than when parties trusted one another. Furthermore, the least-trusted companies were often the least profitable.

17. Industry Regulation Component
Regulations and rules that govern the practices and procedures of specific industries, businesses, and professions
Whereas the political/legal component of the general environment affects all businesses, the industry regulation component consists of regulations and rules that govern the practices and procedures of specific industries, businesses, and professions.

18. Federal Regulatory Agencies and Commissions
Consumer Product Safety Commission
Department of Labor
Environmental Protection Agency
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
Federal Communications Commission
Federal Reserve System
Federal Trade Commission
Food and Drug Administration
National Labor Relations Board
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
Securities and Exchange Commission
Consumer Product Safety Commission Reduces risk of injuries and deaths associated with consumer products, sets product safety standards, enforces product recalls, and provides consumer education
Department of Labor Collects employment statistics and administers labor laws concerning safe working conditions, minimum hourly wages and overtime pay, employment discrimination, and unemployment insurance
Environmental Protection Agency Reduces and controls pollution through research, monitoring, standard setting, and enforcement activities
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission Promotes fair hiring and promotion practices
Federal Communications Commission Regulates interstate and international communications by radio, television, wire, satellite, and cable
Federal Reserve System As nation’s central bank, controls interest rates and money supply and monitors the U.S. banking system to produce a growing economy with stable prices
Federal Trade Commission Restricts unfair methods of business competition and misleading advertising; enforces consumer protection
laws
Food and Drug Administration Protects nation’s health by making sure food, drugs, and cosmetics are safe
National Labor Relations Board Monitors union elections and stops companies from engaging in unfair labor practices
Occupational Safety and Health Administration Saves lives, prevents injuries, and protects the health of workers
Securities and Exchange Commission Protects investors in the bond and stock markets, guarantees access to information on publicly traded securities, and regulates firms that sell securities or give investment advice

19. Advocacy Groups
Concerned citizens who band together to try to influence the business practices of specific industries, businesses, and professions
Public communication
Media advocacy
Product boycott
Advocacy groups are groups of concerned citizens who band together to try to influence the business practices of specific industries, businesses, and professions. The members of a group generally share the same point of view on a particular issue. These groups use a number of approaches to try to influence companies.
The public communications approach relies on voluntary participation by the news media and the advertising industry to send out an advocacy group’s message.
Media advocacy is much more aggressive than the public communications approach. A media advocacy approach typically involves framing the group’s concerns as public issues (affecting everyone); exposing questionable, exploitative, or unethical practices; and forcing media coverage by buying media time or creating controversy that is likely to receive extensive news coverage.
A product boycott is a tactic in which an advocacy group actively tries to persuade consumers not to purchase a company’s product or service.

20. Making Sense of Changing Environments
Environmental scanning
Interpreting environmental factors
Acting on threats and opportunities
As our discussions of the general and specific environments have indicated making sense of business environments is not an easy task. Because external environments can be dynamic, confusing, and complex, managers use a three-step process to make sense of the changes in their external environments: environmental scanning, interpreting environmental factors, and acting on threats and opportunities.

21. Environmental Scanning
Searching the environment for important events or issues that might affect an organization.
Managers scan the environment to reduce uncertainty.
Organizational strategies affect environmental scanning.
Environmental scanning contributes to organizational performance.

22. Interpreting Environmental Factors
Threat or opportunity?
Threat
managers typically take steps to protect the company from further harm
Opportunity
managers consider strategic alternatives for taking advantage of those events to improve performance
After scanning, managers determine what environmental events and issues mean to the organization. Typically, managers view environmental events and issues as either threats or opportunities. When managers interpret environmental events as threats, they take steps to protect the company from further harm. By contrast, when managers interpret environmental events as opportunities, they consider strategic alternatives for taking advantage of those events to improve company performance.

23. Creation and Maintenance of Organizational Cultures
Primary source of organizational culture is the company founder.
Organizational culture is sustained by…
organizational stories
organizational heroes

24. Adaptability is the ability to notice and respond to changes in the organization’s environment.
Company mission is the business’s purpose or reason for existing. In an organizational culture that includes a clear company mission, the organization’s strategic purpose and direction are apparent to everyone in the company.
Finally, in a consistent organizational culture, the company actively defines and teaches organizational values, beliefs, and attitudes. Consistent organizational cultures are also called strong cultures because the core beliefs are widely shared and strongly held.

25. This exhibit, organizational cultures exist on three levels
This exhibit, organizational cultures exist on three levels. On the first, or surface, level are the elements of an organization’s culture that can be seen and observed, such as symbolic artifacts (e.g., dress codes and office layouts) and workers’ and managers’ behaviors. Next, just below the surface, are the values and beliefs expressed by people in the company. You can’t see these values and beliefs, but they become clear if you carefully listen to what people say and observe how decisions are made or explained. Finally, unconsciously held assumptions and beliefs about the company are buried deep below the surface. These are the unwritten views and rules that are so strongly held and so widely shared that they are rarely discussed or even thought about unless someone attempts to change them or unknowingly violates them. Changing such assumptions and beliefs can be very difficult. Instead, managers should focus on the parts of the organizational culture they can control. These include observable surface-level items, such as workers’ behaviors and symbolic artifacts, and expressed values and beliefs, which can be influenced through employee selection.

26. Changing Organizational Cultures
Change visible artifacts
Hiring people with values and beliefs consistent with desired culture
Corporate cultures are very difficult to change. Consequently, there is no guarantee that any one approach—changing visible cultural artifacts, using behavioral substitution, or hiring people with values consistent with a company’s desired culture—will change a company’s organizational culture. The best results are obtained by combining these methods. Together, these are some of the best tools managers have for changing culture because they send the clear message to managers and employees that “the accepted way of doing things” has changed.

27. Business Leadership and Organizational Behavior
Dimensions of National Culture
Craig W. Fontaine, Ph.D.

28. National Cultural Clustering
Huntington’s civilization clustering

29. National Cultural Clustering
Ronen and Shenkar’s culture clustering

30. Hofstede’s Dimensions of Culture
Geert Hofstede’s cultural typology is the most often used.
It is based upon a study of 100,000 IBM employees who work in IBM divisions throughout the world.
Hofstede’s survey revealed five underlying dimensions of culture:
Power Distance
Individualism/Collectivism
Masculinity/Femininity
Uncertainty Avoidance
Long-Term Orientation

31. Hofstede’s Culture Dimensions

32. Power Distance (PD)
Power Distance is the extent to which hierarchical differences are accepted in society and articulated in term of deference to higher and lower social and decision levels in organization.
Artifacts of high PD:
Centralization
# Org. Levels- Height
# Supervisors
Wage Differentials
Values, White & Blue Collar Work

33. Power Distance (PD)
Power distance: country examples and organizational implications

34. Rank distinctions among the Japanese:
Power Distance (PD)
Rank distinctions among the Japanese:

35. Uncertainty Avoidance (UA)
Uncertainty Avoidance is the extent to which uncertainty and ambiguity are tolerated.
Artifacts of high UA:
Standardization
Structured activities
Written rules
Specialists
No risk tolerance
Ritualistic behavior

36. Uncertainty Avoidance (UA)
Uncertainty avoidance: Country examples and organizational implications:

37. Individualism/Collectivism (I/C)
I/C is the extent to which the self or the group constitutes the center point of identification for the individual.
Individual self interest is pursued individually, or as a part of a group.
Artifacts of I/C
Firm as “family”
Utilitarian decision making
Group performance

38. Individualism/Collectivism (I/C)
Individualism/collectivism: country examples and organizational implications

39. Masculinity-Femininity (M/F)
Refers to the extent to which traditional masculine values, like aggressiveness and assertiveness, are valued.
Artifacts of M/F
Sex Roles Minimized
More Women In Jobs
Interpersonal Skills Rewarded
Intuitive Skills Rewarded
Social Rewards Valued

40. Masculinity-Femininity (M/F)
Masculinity/femininity: Country examples and organizational implications

41. Long-Term Orientation (LTO)
Originally called Confucian Dynamism because of anchoring in the Confucian value system.
Represents such values as thrift, persistence, and traditional respect of social obligations.
Organizations likely to adopt longer planning horizon, with individuals ready to delay gratification.

42. Long-Term Orientation (LTO)
Country scores
on long-term orientation)