1. Callum Firth & James Cole

2. Kikai Akahoya eruption: 7,000 years ago – 150km 3, VEI = 7 Vegetation did not recover for 800-900 years. Neolithic Kyusha Kaigara-non ceramic culture disappears and replaced by early Jomon ceramic culture.

3. Toba – 73,000 years ago. 2,800km 3, VEI = 8+ Volcanic Winter Ambrose (1998) and the bottle neck theory Lane et al. 2013 no volcanic winter in East Africa

4. Maslin et al. (2014) Climate pulses and early human evolution Y1Y2 TNZ Summary diagram showing East African Hominin diversity, formation of ephemeral lakes and Hominin dispersal dates. Mega eruptions Y1 – Yellowstone – 2.059 million years - VEI 8+ NZ – New Zealand – 1.01 & 0.97 million years – VEI 7+ Y2 – Yellowstone – 639,000 years – VEI 8 T – Toba – 73,000 years VEI 8+

5. Eruptions are classified by reference to the Volcanic Explosive Index (VEI) which is related to the volume of material ejected (Dense Rock Equivalent) VEI 8 = > 1,000 km 3 of DRE - Toba (73 ka) VEI 7 = 100-999 km 3 of DRE – Tambora (1815) VEI 6 = 10-99 km 3 of DRE – Krakatoa (1883) VEI 5 = 1-9 km 3 of DRE – Pinatubo (1991)

6. 5.0 4.0 2.2 2.06 0.64 0.34 0.073 0.040 0.073

7. 4.3 4.2 2.8 1.75 1.23, 1.01, 0.97 0.79 0.76 0.45 0.22 0.084 0.026 0.024

10. Dispersion EventAssociated eruption/s 970,000-980,000 yearsMangakino, New Zealand - 1.01 million years and 970,000 years both >300km 3 620,000 yearsYellowstone, North America - 639,000 years - >1,000 km 3 115,000-140,000 yearsNone 55,000-71,000Toba – 73,000 years – 2,800 km 3 20,000-40,000 yearsUzon-Geizemaya, Russia - 40,000 years - 1,700 km 3 Taupo, New Zealand – 26,000 years - 530km 3 Aira, Japan – 24,000 years – 450 km 3

11. VEI = 8 NH VEI = 7+ NZ VEI = 7+

12.  Limitations of comparing eruption record with the Hominin record since the later is so fragmentary.  Each step in cranial capacity possibly follows a super eruption  There may be a link between ‘Out of Africa’ dispersion events and large eruptions but not always the case and more likely to drive environmental change than impact directly on the Hominin population.  Impact of East African environmental changes on local eruption chronology not evaluated.