1. Ying Lin Anatomy & Phyiology Final exam project

2.  Diabetes is a chronic disease marked by high levels of sugar in the blood.  There are three major types of diabetes:  Type 1 diabetes is usually diagnosed in childhood. Many patients are diagnosed when they are older than age 20. In this disease, the body makes little or no insulin. Daily injections of insulin are needed. The exact cause is unknown. Genetics, viruses, and autoimmune problems may play a role. Type 1 diabetes  Type 2 diabetes is far more common than type 1.It usually occurs in adulthood. The pancreas does not make enough insulin to keep blood glucose levels normal, often because the body does not respond well to insulin. Many people with type 2 diabetes do not know they have it, although it is a serious condition. Type 2 diabetes is becoming more common due to increasing obesity and failure to exercise. Type 2 diabetes  Gestational diabetes is high blood glucose that develops at any time during pregnancy in a woman who does not have diabetes. Women who have gestational diabetes are at high risk of type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease later in life. Gestational diabetes

4.  Recent cohort studies indicate that diabetes itself is associated with increased risk of fracture of the hip, proximal humerus, and foot.  Type 1 diabetes is associated with modest reductions in bone mineral density (BMD) but type 2 diabetes is often characterized by elevated BMD.  Diabetes can impact bone through multiple pathways, some with contradictory effects, including obesity, changes in insulin levels, higher concentrations of advanced glycation end products in collagen, hypercalciuria associated with glycosuria, reduced renal function, lower insulin-like growth factor-I, microangiopathy, and inflammation.  The onset of diabetes in adolescence may result in a decreased peak bone mass.  Bone metabolism may be affected by the late complications of diabetes

5.  Patients with diabetes mellitus can develop contracture of digits and limbs as a result of soft tissue thickening in these areas. This can lead to wasting of the muscle from disuse. This is referred to as atrophy.  Diabetes mellitus can also damage the nerves that supply the hands and feet. This can lead to inadequate nerve supply and further muscle wasting  Persons with longstanding diabetes mellitus can develop pain, and muscle twitching, in addition to muscle wasting of the muscles around the shoulders and hips  In type 2 diabetes, the body loses its ability to synthesize it properly, and insulin resistance results.  insulin resistance makes muscles believe the body is starving, therefore it retards muscle growth to conserve energy. A loss of muscle mass often marks the transition from insulin resistance to type 2 diabetes

9.  http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0002194/ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0002194/  http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/433252 http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/433252  http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/28/10/2541.full http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/28/10/2541.full  http://www.nahanniriverherbs.com/84,326 http://www.nahanniriverherbs.com/84,326