1. Anticoagulant Therapy
Deep venous thrombosis
Pulmonary embolism

2. Coagulation Cascade Antiagoagulant therapy is aimed at:
preventing clot in patients at risk
Prevent clot extension/ embolisation
Deep venous thrombosis (DVT) & pulmonary embolism (PE)
Prothrombinase complex comprises the mixture of FVa/FXa in addition to calcium & phospholipid
The presence of phospholipid accelerates thrombin formation by 780-fold

4. THROMBIN INHIBITORS
Thrombin inhibitors can either inactivate thrombin directly or block thrombin formation
Thrombin can be inhibited irreversibly by glycosaminoglycans like heparin through an antithrombin III-dependent mechanism
The enzyme can be inhibited reversibly by hirudin and hirudin derivatives in an antithrombin III-independent manner
In addition to inhibiting thrombin, the glycosaminoglycans also block thrombin generation

5. Antithrombin-III Dependent Thrombin Inhibitors
Standard Unfractionated Heparin (UFH)
Heparin is a mixture of glycosaminoglycan molecules, which are heterogenous in molecular size
Antithrombin III (ATIII) binding is a necessary requirement for its anticoagulant activity
The mean molecular weight of heparin is 15,000 D

6. Mode of Action of Heparin
Antithrombin III (ATIII) is a slow progressive inhibitor of thrombin and other clotting enzymes.
Heparin binds to ATIII through a unique pentasaccharide (light blue areas) → conformational change in the reactive center of ATIII → accelerating the rate of ATIII-mediated inactivation of the clotting enzymes
Heparin also promotes the formation of the thrombin-ATIII complex by serving as a template that binds both thrombin and ATIII
ATIII forms a 1:1 irreversible complex with the coagulation enzymes
Once this occurs, the heparin dissociates and can be reused
Heparin

7. Heparin inactivates thrombin by binding both ATIII and thrombin
To inactivate thrombin, heparin serves as a template and binds both anti-thrombin III (ATIII) and thrombin
Binding to ATIII is mediated by the unique penta-saccharide sequence on heparin
Binding to thrombin occurs through the heparin-binding domain on the enzyme
Conversely, to inactivate factor Xa, heparin needs only to bind to ATIII through its pentasaccharide sequence
Anti-IIa = Anti-Xa activity

8. Targets for Heparin-ATIII Complex
Heparin/ATIII inactivates several coagulation enzymes including thrombin (factor IIa) and factors Xa, IXa, & XIa
The enzyme most sensitive to inhibition is factor IIa
The next most sensitive enzyme is factor Xa
By inhibiting these two enzymes heparin inhibits both thrombin activity & thrombin formation

9. Limitations to the Use of Heparin

10. Low Molecular Weight Heparins (LMWHs)
Low molecular weight heparins (mean molecular weight 5000 D), prepared by controlled chemical or enzymatic depolymerization of standard unfractionated heparin are about one third the size of starting material
Whereas about one third of the molecules of unfractionated heparin have the unique antithrombin III (ATIII)-binding pentasaccharide, only about 20% of low molecular weight heparin chains contain the pentasaccharide
Enoxaparin, dalteparin & tinzaparin are available LMWHs products

11. Mechanism of Action of Low Molecular Weight Heparin (LMWH)
All LMWH molecules, which contain the unique pentasaccharide, can catalyze the inactivation of factor Xa by antithrombin III (ATIII)
In contrast, only 25% to 50% of LMWH molecules that have the pentasaccharide sequence also contain at least 13 additional saccharide units to bind to both ATIII & FIIa
As a result, the antithrombin (anti-factor IIa)
activity of LMWH is less than its anti-factor Xa activity
Standard heparin has equivalent
anti-factor IIa and anti-factor Xa activity
because all of the heparin chains that
contain the pentasaccharide are long
enough to interact with both ATIII & thrombin

12. Pharmacokinetic Profile of LMWH
LMWH has a more favorable pharmacokinetic profile than standard heparin because LMWH exhibits less binding to plasma proteins & cell surfaces
The reduced binding to plasma proteins results in
Better bioavailability (90% vs. 20% for heparin)
more predictable anticoagulant response
Laboratory monitoring of LMWH activity is not required
Heparin resistance is rare for LMWH
The reduced binding of LMWH to cell surfaces explains why it has a longer half-life than heparin (4 hr vs. 2 hr for heparin),
Given at fixed doses once to twice daily by S.C. route

13. Biophysical Limitations of Heparin and LMWH
Both heparin and low molecular weight heparin preparations have biophysical limitations because they are unable to inactivate thrombin bound to fibrin, or to subendothelial matrix and to inhibit factor Xa within the prothrombinase complex
Thrombin binds to fibrin where it remains catalytically active
Thrombin bound to fibrin is protected
from inactivation by heparin/antithrombin III

14. Other Injectable Antithrombotic Agents
Fondaparinux, a pentasaccharide, is an AT-III-dependent selective factor Xa inhibitor
It is indicated for the prevention of venous thrombosis associated with orthopedic surgery
Administered >6 hours postoperatively and dose adjusted for renal impairment
Tests for Monitoring Antithrombotic Therapy
Prothrombin time (PT)/International Normalization Ratio (INR), usual target is 2-3 times normal
Activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT)- (serum UFH)
Anti-Xa activity for LMWHs-treatment in cases of unexpected bleeding & pregnant women

15. Therapeutic Uses
Heparin should be given either by IV or S.C. injection with onset of action of few minutes and 1-2 hr respectively
LMWHs is given by S.C. route
I.M. injection produces hematoma formation
Treatment of deep-vein thrombosis & pulmonary embolism
Prevention of postoperative venous thrombosis in patients in acute MI phase or one undergoing elective surgery
Reduction of coronary artery thrombosis after thrombolytic treatment
Anticoagulant of choice in pregnant women

16. Adverse Effects
Bleeding: Bleeding time monitoring is essential. Treatment involves injection of antidote protamine sulphate (1mg Iv for each 100 units of UFH) (reversal of effect)
Thrombosis: AT-III inactivation may lead to potent activation of many clotting factors & hence increasing thrombosis risk
Thrombocytopenia: UFH-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) is a life-threatening immune reaction that occurs in up to 3% of patients on heparin therapy for 5-14 days
It induces platelet activation & endothelial damage with enhanced thrombi formation & paradoxical thrombosis
A non-immunologic reversible HIT may occur in early phase of therapy due to direct effect of UFH on platelets
LMWHs, though of lower risk, are contraindicated with HIT

17. Adverse Effects
Osteoporosis occurs with large doses of UFH >20,000 U/day for 6 months or longer
Hyperkalemia rarely occurs with UFH
It is attributed to inhibition of aldostetone secretion
It occurs with both low- & high-dose UFH therapy
Onset is quick within a week after therapy initiation
It is reversible by therapy discontinuation
Diabetic & renal failure patients are at higher risk
Hypersensitivity: (Antigenicity due to animal source)
rarely occurring reactions include urticaria, rash, rhinitis, angioedema & reversible alopecia

18. Contraindications Hypersensitivity to heparin
Active bleeding or hemophilia
Significant throbocytopenia, purpura
Severe hypertension
Intracranial hemrrhage
Ulcerative GIT lesions
Active TB
Recent surgery in CNS, eye
Advanced hepatic or renal disease

19. Direct Thrombin Inhibitors Hirudin Hirugen & Hirlug
A, Hirudin
A leech-derived protein, a potent & specific inhibitor of thrombin
It binds to both the substrate recognition site and the catalytic center. The hirudin-thrombin complex slowly dissociates
B, Hirugen
A synthetic peptide analogue of the carboxy terminal of hirudin
It binds to the substrate recognition site of thrombin

20. Direct Thrombin Inhibitors (DTI)
C, Hirulog is a synthetic bivalent inhibitor of thrombin comprised of a catalytic site inhibitor linked to hirugen. Thus, hirulog interacts with both the substrate recognition site and the catalytic center of thrombin.
D, Catalytic site inhibitors interact with the active center of thrombin

21. Inhibition of Bound Thrombin
Neither heparin/ATIII nor LMWH/ATIII are an effective inhibitor of fibrin-bound thrombin because the heparin-binding site on thrombin is masked when the enzyme is bound to fibrin
In contrast, the ATIII-independent thrombin inhibitors are able to inactivate fibrin-bound thrombin as well as free thrombin

22. In vivo studies with direct thrombin inhibitors
In experimental animals, hirudin, hirulog, and inhibitors of the catalytic site of thrombin are more effective than heparin in preventing extension of venous thrombosis, preventing platelet-dependent arterial thrombosis, and accelerating thrombolysis
Preliminary studies in humans also suggest that the direct thrombin inhibitors are more effective than heparin in venous thrombosis, in unstable angina, and in the setting of thrombolytic therapy

23. Clinically Approved Direct Thrombin Inhibitors
Lepirudin, recombinant hirudin-like peptide, has been approved for IV anticoagulant use in HIT patients, has renal clearance
It has potential use in unstable angina patients (Circulation 2001; 103: 1479)
Bivaluridin, a bivalent DTI, used by IV route for patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention
Argatroban, a small monovalent (thrombin active site only) molecule, with DTI activity, used similarly in HIT patients, has hepatic clearance
aPTT is used to monitor activity for these agents

24. DIRECT FACTOR Xa INHIBITORS
There are two direct factor Xa inhibitors, the tick anticoagulant peptide (TAP), originally isolated from the soft tick Ornithodoros moubata and antistasin, derived from the Mexican leech
Both inhibitors are now available by recombinant technology
Studies in animals indicate that both TAP and antistasin are effective antithrombotic agents in experimental models of arterial thrombosis

25. DIRECT FACTOR Xa INHIBITORS
Differ from heparin and low molecular weight heparins in two ways: 1) they inactivate factor Xa independent of antithrombin III (ATIII); and 2) in addition to inactivating free factor Xa, there is evidence that these agents also are able to inactivate factor Xa within the prothrombinase complex

26. Oral Anticoagulants Vitamin K Antagonists (The Coumarins)
Vitamin K is crucial co-factor for the hepatic synthesis of clotting factors II, VII, IX & X
Vitamin K catalyses the ɣ-carboxylation of glutamic acid residues in the mentioned factors via a vitamin K-dependent carboxylase
The ɣ-carboxyglutamyl residues bind Ca2+ to enable interaction with phosphlipids

27. Vitamin K Antagonists Warfarin
The reduced vit K is converted into vitamin K epoxide which is reduced back by vitamin K reductase the target enzyme which warfarin inhibits
This results in the production of inactive clotting factors lacking ɣ-carboxyglutamyl residues

28. Vitamin K Antagonists Warfarin
Onset: Effect of a single dose starts only after hrs (unlike heparin) & lasts for 4-5 days although its quick GIT absorption
Clinical anticoagulant activity needs several days to develop (four half-lives of clotting factors needed to elapse before steady state)
This may be related to the elimination half-lives of the concerned clotting factors (6-72 hrs) (Factor II: hrs, X<48hrs)
Overlap heparin & warfarin therapy to overcome delayed warfarin activity & warfarin-inhibition of the anticoagulant protein C & S

29. Vitamin K Antagonists Warfarin
Warfarin has 100% oral bioavailability, powerful plasma protein binding & long plasma t1/2 of 36 hrs
A loading high dose followed by maintenance dose is adjusted
Warfarin is contraindicated with pregnancy as it crosses the placental barrier and is teratogenic in the first trimester & and induce intracranial hemorrhage in the baby during delivery
Warfarin is metabolized by hepatic Cytochrome P450 enzymes with half-life of 40 hrs

30. Warfarin Drug Pharmacokinetic & Pharmacodynamic Interactions
Potentiating warfarin
Inhibitors of hepatic P450 enzymes (cimetidine, co-trimoxazole, imipramine)
Platelet aggregation inhibitors (NSAIDs, aspirin)
3rd G cephalosporins
Drugs displacing warfarin from binding sites (NSAIDs)
Drugs reducing the availability of vitamin K
Hepatic disease & hyperthyroidism
Inhibiting Warfarin
Vitamin K in some parenteral feed
Inducers of hepatic P450 enzymes (rifampicin, barbiturates, … etc)
Reduction of GIT absorption (colestyramine)
Diuretics
Hypothyroidism

31. Warfarin Side-Effects
Drug-drug interactions
Bleeding disorder; monitor anticoagulant effect by measuring PT or INR, reversal of action:
Minor bleeding: stop therapy + oral Vitamin K
Severe Bleeding: stop therapy + I.V. Vitamin K
Fresh-frozen plasma, recombinant factor VIIa or prothrombin complex may be used

32. Comparison of UFH & LNWH
Character
UFH
LMWH
Average Mol wt
15,000
5,000
Anti-Xa/anti-IIa activity
1/1
2-4/1
aPTT monitoring required
Yes No
Inactivation of platelet-bound Xa
Protein binding
Powerful) 4+)
Weak (+)
Endothelial cell binding
Dose-dependent clearence
Elimination half-life
min
2-5 times longer