1. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules KEY CONCEPT All living things are based on atoms and their interactions.

2. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules Living things consist of atoms of different elements. An atom is the smallest basic unit of matter. An element is one type of atom. H O Hydrogen atom (H) Oxygen atom (O)

3. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules –The nucleus has protons (+) and neutrons (0). –Electrons (-) are in energy levels outside nucleus. Oxygen atom (O) Nucleus: 8 protons (+) 8 neutrons outermost energy level: 6 electrons (-) inner energy level: 2 electrons (-) An atom has a nucleus and electrons.

4. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules –water (H 2 O) O HH _ ++ A compound is made of atoms of different elements bonded together.

5. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules –carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) A compound is made of atoms of different elements bonded together. –water (H 2 O)

6. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules –many other carbon-based compounds in living things A compound is made of atoms of different elements bonded together. –water (H 2 O) –carbon dioxide (CO 2 )

7. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules Ions form when atoms gain or lose electrons. An ion is an atom that has gained or lost one or more electrons. –positive ions (lost electrons) –negative ions (gained electrons) Ionic bonds form between oppositely charged ions. Sodium atom (Na)Chlorine atom (CI)Sodium ion (Na + )Chloride ion (CI - ) Na loses an electron to CI ionic bond gained electron

8. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules Atoms share pairs of electrons in covalent bonds. A covalent bond forms when atoms share a pair of electrons. covalent bonds Oxygen atom (O)Carbon atom (C)Oxygen atom (O) Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) –multiple covalent bonds –diatomic molecules

9. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules KEY CONCEPT 2.2 Properties of Water Water’s unique properties allow life to exist on Earth.

10. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules O HH _ ++ 2.2 Properties of Water Life depends on hydrogen bonds in water. Water is a polar molecule. –Polar molecules have slightly charged regions. – Nonpolar molecules do not have charged regions. – Hydrogen bonds form between slightly positive hydrogen atoms and slightly negative (oxygen) atoms.

11. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules Hydrogen bonds are responsible for three important properties of water. –high specific heat –Cohesion –Same substances –Adhesion –Different substances

12. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules Many compounds dissolve in water. A solution is formed when one substance dissolves in another. –A solution is a homogeneous mixture. –Solvents dissolve other substances. –Solutes dissolve in a solvent. solution

13. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules “Like dissolves like.” –Polar solvents dissolve polar solutes. –Nonpolar solvents dissolve nonpolar solutes. –Polar substances and nonpolar substances generally remain separate.

14. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules Some compounds form acids or bases. An acid releases a hydrogen ion when it dissolves in water. –high H + concentration –pH less than 7 more acidic stomach acid pH between 1 and 3

15. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules A base removes hydrogen ions from a solution. –low H + concentration –pH greater than 7 bile pH between 8 and 9 more basic

16. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules A neutral solution has a pH of 7. pure water pH 7

17. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules KEY CONCEPT 2.3 Carbon-based Molecules Carbon-based molecules are the foundation of life.

18. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules Carbon atoms have unique bonding properties. Carbon forms covalent bonds with up to four other atoms, including other carbon atoms. Carbon-based molecules have three general types of structures. –straight chain –branched chain –ring

19. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules Many carbon-based molecules are made of many small subunits bonded together. –Monomers are the individual subunits. –Polymers are made of many monomers.

20. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules Four main types of carbon-based molecules are found in living things. Carbohydrates are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

21. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules Four main types of carbon-based molecules are found in living things. Carbohydrates are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. –Carbohydrates include sugars and starches. –Monosaccharides are simple sugars. –Polysaccharides include starches, cellulose, and glycogen.

22. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules Carbohydrates can be broken down to provide short- term energy for cells. Some carbohydrates are part of cell structure. Polymer (starch) Starch is a polymer of glucose monomers that often has a branched structure. Polymer (cellulose) Cellulose is a polymer of glucose monomers that has a straight, rigid structure monomer

23. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules –Many contain carbon chains called fatty acids. –Fats and oils contain fatty acids bonded to glycerol. Lipids are nonpolar molecules that include fats, oils, and cholesterol. Triglyceride

24. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules Lipids have several different functions. –broken down as a source of long-term energy –make up cell membranes – used to make hormones

25. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules Fats and oils have different types of fatty acids. –saturated fatty acids –unsaturated fatty acids

26. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules Phospholipids make up all cell membranes. –Polar phosphate “head” –Nonpolar fatty acid “tails” Phospholipid

27. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules Contain C, O, and some H

28. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules Proteins are polymers of amino acid monomers. –Twenty different amino acids are used to build proteins in organisms.

29. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules –Amino acids differ in side groups, or R groups. Proteins are polymers of amino acid monomers. –Twenty different amino acids are used to build proteins in organisms.

30. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules –Amino acids are linked by peptide bonds. Proteins are polymers of amino acid monomers. –Amino acids differ in side groups, or R groups. –Twenty different amino acids are used to build proteins in organisms.

31. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules Proteins differ in the number and order of amino acids. –Amino acids interact to give a protein its shape. –Incorrect amino acids change a protein’s structure and function. hydrogen bond Hemoglobin

32. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules - used to control reaction rates, to communicate and provide support.

33. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules Contains C, H, O, N

34. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules Nucleic acids are polymers of monomers called nucleotides.

35. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules –Nucleotides are made of a sugar, phosphate group, and a nitrogen base. A phosphate group nitrogen-containing molecule, called a base deoxyribose (sugar) Nucleic acids are polymers of monomers called nucleotides.

36. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules –DNA stores genetic information. Nucleic acids are polymers of monomers called nucleotides. –Nucleotides are made of a sugar, phosphate group, and a nitrogen base. –RNA builds proteins. DNA RNA

37. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules Contains, C, H, O, N, P

38. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules KEY CONCEPT 2.4 Chemical Reactions Life depends on chemical reactions.

39. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules Bonds break and form during chemical reactions. Chemical reactions change substances into different ones by breaking and forming chemical bonds. –Reactants are changed during a chemical reaction. –Products are made by a chemical reaction.

40. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules A reaction is at equilibrium when reactants and products form at the same rate. CO 2 + H 2 O H 2 CO 3 Bond energy is the amount of energy that breaks a bond. –Energy is added to break bonds. –Energy is released when bonds form.

41. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules Chemical reactions release or absorb energy. Activation energy is the amount of energy that needs to be absorbed to start a chemical reaction.

42. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules Exothermic reactions release more energy than they absorb. –Reactants have higher bond energies than products. –Excess energy is released by the reaction.

43. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules Endothermic reactions absorb more energy than they release. –Reactants have lower bond energies than products. –Energy is absorbed by the reaction to make up the difference.

44. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules 2.4 Enzymes: KEY CONCEPT Enzymes are catalysts for chemical reactions in living things.

45. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules A catalyst lowers activation energy. Catalysts are substances that speed up chemical reactions. –decrease activation energy –increase reaction rate

46. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules Enzymes allow chemical reactions to occur under tightly controlled conditions. Enzymes are catalysts in living things. –Enzymes are needed for almost all processes. –Most enzymes are proteins. –Usually end in –ase maltase, lactase, amylase

47. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules Disruptions in homeostasis can prevent enzymes from functioning. –Enzymes function best in a small range of conditions. –Changes in temperature and pH can break hydrogen bonds. –An enzyme’s function depends on its structure.

48. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules An enzyme’s structure allows only certain reactants to bind to the enzyme. –substrates –active site substrates (reactants) enzyme Substrates bind to an enzyme at certain places called active sites.

49. 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules The lock-and-key model helps illustrate how enzymes function. –substrates brought together –bonds in substrates weakened Substrates bind to an enzyme at certain places called active sites. The enzyme brings substrates together and weakens their bonds. The catalyzed reaction forms a product that is released from the enzyme.