1. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Foundations of Individual Behavior Chapter TWO

2. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Learning Objectives  Define the key biographical characteristics.  Identify two types of ability  Shape the behavior of others.  Distinguish between the four schedules of reinforcement.  Clarify the role of punishment in learning.  Practice self-management

3. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Biographical Characteristics Personal characteristics—such as age, gender, race and tenure—that are objective and easily obtained from personnel records.

4. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Ability, Intellect, and Intelligence Ability An individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks in a job. Intellectual Ability The capacity to do mental activities. Multiple Intelligences Intelligence contains four subparts: cognitive, social, emotional, and cultural.

5. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Number aptitude Verbal comprehension Perceptual speed Inductive reasoning Deductive reasoning Spatial (occupying space ) visualization Memory Number aptitude Verbal comprehension Perceptual speed Inductive reasoning Deductive reasoning Spatial (occupying space ) visualization Memory Dimensions of Intellectual Ability E X H I B I T 2–1

6. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. COGNITION Dictionary Meanings  The mental process of knowing, including aspects such as awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment.  That which comes to be known, as through perception, reasoning, or intuition; knowledge. The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition Copyright © 2006 by Houghton Mifflin Company.

7. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Cognitive Science  ‘Cognitive Science is the interdisciplinary study of mind and intelligence, embracing philosophy, psychology, artificial intelligence, neuroscience, linguistics, and anthropology.’  (Thagard, P. 1996. Mind: Introduction to Cognitive Science, Cambridge, Mass,: MIT Press, page ix. In 1996)

8. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. What is Cognition?  ‘The expression cognitive science is used to describe a broadly integrated class of approaches to the study of mental activities and processes and of cognition in particular. Cognitive science is broad not just in the sense of encompassing disciplines as varied as neuroscience, cognitive psychology, philosophy, linguistics, computer science, and anthropology, but also in the sense that cognitive scientists tend to adopt certain basic, general assumptions about mind and intelligent thought and behavior.  These include assumptions that the mind is (1) an information processing system, (2) a representational device, and (3) (in some sense) a computer.’  (Bechtel, W, and Graham, G. 1998. A Companion to Cognitive Science, Oxford: Blackwell, page xiii. In 1998

9. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. What is Cognition? http://www.bianys.org/learnet/tutorials/cognition.html http://www.bianys.org/learnet/tutorials/cognition.html What is Cognition? http://www.bianys.org/learnet/tutorials/cognition.html http://www.bianys.org/learnet/tutorials/cognition.html  In general, the word “cognition” refers to all of the mental activities involved in receiving information, comprehending it, storing it, retrieving it, and using it. Thus cognition includes:  1. The sensory and perceptual processes that enable us to receive information from the world (e.g., vision, hearing, smell, taste, and tactile sensation/perception)  2. All of the mental processes involved in attending to the information, recognizing it as something meaningful, making sense of the information, relating it to what is already known, organizing the information, deciding what is important and what is not important, storing the information for later retrieval, retrieving it when useful  3. Using the information to make decisions about what to do, to solve problems, to communicate, and the like.

10. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Deductive and Inductive Thinking  In logic, we often refer to the two broad methods of reasoning as the deductive and inductive approaches.

11. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Deduction  Deductive reasoning works from the more general to the more specific. Sometimes this is informally called a "top-down" approach. We might begin with thinking up a theory about our topic of interest. We then narrow that down into more specific hypotheses that we can test. We narrow down even further when we collect observations to address the hypotheses. This ultimately leads us to be able to test the hypotheses with specific data -- a confirmation (or not) of our original theories.

12. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Induction  Inductive reasoning works the other way, moving from specific observations to broader generalizations and theories. Informally, we sometimes call this a "bottom up" approach (please note that it's "bottom up" and not "bottoms up" which is the kind of thing the bartender says to customers when he's trying to close for the night!). In inductive reasoning, we begin with specific observations and measures, begin to detect patterns and regularities, formulate some tentative hypotheses that we can explore, and finally end up developing some general conclusions or theories.

13. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Physical Abilities The capacity to do tasks demanding stamina, dexterity ( good physical coordination ), strength, and similar characteristics.

14. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Other Factors 7.Body coordination 8.Balance 9.Stamina Other Factors 7.Body coordination 8.Balance 9.Stamina Nine Physical Abilities Strength Factors 1.Dynamic strength 2.Trunk strength 3.Static strength 4.Explosive strength Strength Factors 1.Dynamic strength 2.Trunk strength 3.Static strength 4.Explosive strength Flexibility Factors 5.Extent flexibility 6.Dynamic flexibility Flexibility Factors 5.Extent flexibility 6.Dynamic flexibility E X H I B I T 2–2 Source: Adapted from HRMagazine published by the Society for Human Resource Management, Alexandria, VA.

15. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Ability-Job Fit The Ability-Job Fit Employee’s Abilities Job’s Ability Requirements

16. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Learning Involves change Is relatively permanent Is acquired through experience Learning Involves change Is relatively permanent Is acquired through experience Learning Any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience.

17. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Theories of Learning Key Concepts Unconditioned stimulus Unconditioned response Conditioned stimulus Conditioned response Key Concepts Unconditioned stimulus Unconditioned response Conditioned stimulus Conditioned response Classical Conditioning A type of conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus ( incentive) that would not ordinarily produce such a response.

18. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Classical Conditioning  The meat was an unconditioned stimulus( it invariably caused the dog to react in a specific way).  The reaction that took place whenever the unconditioned stimulus occurred, was called the unconditioned response ( the noticeable increase in salivation, in this case).  The bell was an artificial stimulus, called conditioned stimulus.  Although it was originally neutral, after the bell was paired with the meat (an unconditioned stimulus), it eventually produced a response when presented alone..

19. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Classical Conditioning … continued  Conditioned response – the dog salivated in reaction to the bell alone.  When the stimuli, one compelling and the other neutral, are paired, the neutral one becomes a conditioned stimulus and, hence, takes on the properties of the unconditioned stimulus.  Classical conditioning is passive. Something happens and we react in a specific way. As such, it can be explain simple “reflexive”.

20. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. E X H I B I T 2–3 Source: The Far Side ® by Gary Larson © 1993 Far Works, Inc. All rights reserved. Used with permission.

21. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Theories of Learning (cont’d) Key Concepts Reflexive (unlearned) behavior Conditioned (learned) behavior Reinforcement Key Concepts Reflexive (unlearned) behavior Conditioned (learned) behavior Reinforcement Operant Conditioning A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment.

22. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Operant Conditioning  It argues that the behavior is the function of its consequences.  People learn to get something they want or to avoid something they do not want.  Operant behavior means voluntary or learned behavior in contrast to reflexive or unlearned behavior.  The tendency to repeat such behavior is influenced by the reinforcement or lack of reinforcement.  Therefore, reinforcement strengthens a behavior & increases the likelihood that it will be repeated.

23. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Operant Conditioning ……continued.  Skinner, argued that people will most likely engage in desired behaviors if they immediately follow the desired response; and that behavior that is not rewarded, or is punished, is less likely to be repeated.  Example - A commissioned sales person wanting to earn a sizable income finds that doing so is linked to generating high sales in his territory.

24. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Theories of Learning (cont’d) Key Concepts Attentional processes Retention processes Motor reproduction processes Reinforcement processes Key Concepts Attentional processes Retention processes Motor reproduction processes Reinforcement processes Social-Learning Theory Individuals can also learn by observing what happens to other people & just by being told about something, as well by direct experience. Much of what we have learned comes from watching models – parents, teachers, peers, motion pictures, TV performers, bosses, and so forth. The influence of models is central to the social – learning view point

25. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Social-Learning Theory  Attentional Processes: People learn from a model only when they recognize & pay attention to its critical features. We tend to be influenced by the models that are attractive, repeatedly available, important to us, or similar to us in our estimation.  Rentention Processes: A model’s influence will depend on how well the individual remembers the model’s action after the model is no longer readily available.  Motor Reproduction Processes: After a person has seen a new behavior by observing the model, the watching must be converted to doing. This process demonstrates that the individual can perform the modeled activities.  Reinforcement Processes: Individuals will be motivated to exhibit the modeled behavior if +ve incentives/rewards are provided. Behaviors that are +vely reinforced will be given more attention, learned better, & performed more often.

26. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Theories of Learning (cont’d) Key Concepts Reinforcement is required to change behavior. Some rewards are more effective than others. The timing of reinforcement affects learning speed and permanence. Key Concepts Reinforcement is required to change behavior. Some rewards are more effective than others. The timing of reinforcement affects learning speed and permanence. Shaping Behavior Systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves an individual closer to the desired response.

27. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Contingencies of Reinforcement  Positive reinforcement – occurs when the introduction of a consequence increases or maintains the frequency or future probability of a behavior.  Negative reinforcement – occurs when the removal or avoidance of a consequence increases or maintains the frequency or future probability of a behavior.

28. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Contingencies, cont.  Punishment – occurs when a consequence decreases the frequency or future probability of a behavior  Extinction – occurs when a target behavior decreases because no consequences follow it –

29. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Punishment vs. Negative-Reinforcement Behavior Consequence Punishment Negative Reinforcement Customers served too slowly Boss criticizes Customers served faster Boss stops criticizing

30. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous Reinforcement A desired behavior is reinforced each time it is demonstrated. Intermittent Reinforcement A desired behavior is reinforced often enough to make the behavior worth repeating but not every time it is demonstrated.

31. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Schedules of Reinforcement  Continuous reinforcement refers to reinforcement being administered to each instance of a response  Intermittent reinforcement lies between continuous reinforcement and extinction

32. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. An Example of Continuous Reinforcement

33. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. An example of Fixed Ratio Reinforcement

34. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. An Example of Variable Ratio Reinforcement

35. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d) Fixed-Interval Schedule Rewards are spaced at uniform time intervals. Variable-Interval Schedule Rewards are initiated after a fixed or constant number of responses.

36. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d) Fixed-ratio E X H I B I T 2–4

37. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement E X H I B I T 2–5

38. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d) E X H I B I T 2–5 (cont’d)

39. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Behavior Modification Five Step Problem-Solving Model 1.Identify critical behaviors 2.Develop baseline data 3.Identify behavioral consequences 4.Develop and apply intervention 5.Evaluate performance improvement Five Step Problem-Solving Model 1.Identify critical behaviors 2.Develop baseline data 3.Identify behavioral consequences 4.Develop and apply intervention 5.Evaluate performance improvement OB Mod The application of reinforcement concepts to individuals in the work setting.

40. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Chapter Checkup: Reinforcement Theory When professors give random pop quizzes or take random attendance, students often complain that they are adults, old enough to make their own decisions, and should therefore not be required to come to class. How do you reconcile this argument with what we know about reinforcement theory? Discuss with a classmate. What kind of reinforcement schedule are these professors using? Would a different schedule be preferable? If so, which one?

41. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Methods of Shaping Behavior - Types of Reinforcement  Positive reinforcement –Providing a pleasant reward for a desired behavior.  Negative reinforcement –Removing an unpleasant consequence when the desired behavior occurs.  Punishment –Is causing an unpleasant condition in an attempt to eliminate an undesirable behavior.  Extinction –Eliminating any reinforcement that is maintaining a behavior is called extinction.

42. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Chapter Checkup: Reinforcement Theory Recall and write down the three criteria that indicate learning has occurred. Do you think that learning, according to these criteria, really occurs as a result of a one semester college class? Discuss with a neighbor. What kinds of things would you recommend to a college professor to increase the likelihood of students learning all class material? Use theories from the text to frame your answer.