1. Rhetoric and Rhetorical Devices
This class focuses on the study of rhetoric, or the use of language to be persuasive.
To be persuasive NOT a superficial task, but instead it relies on deep-seeded, unspoken, and universal human commonalities (character traits, mindsets, etc).
Understanding those universal traits can help us to better understand how appeals reach their audience.

2. Appeals and Claims
Understanding tropes and scheme, as a part of the style canon of rhetoric, help us understand the complexities of an argument.
Generalization and other warrants allow arguments to work at an unspoken, subconscious level.
If we reveal the way tropes, stereotypes and archetypes work for authors and speakers, we can understand how they work as a part of layered appeals.

3. Answer and Define each:
Answer: How do each of these terms relate to one another? How are they different? How are they alike?
Ideology
Identity
Tropes (specifics of category also)
Schemes (specifics of category also)
Archetypes
Motifs
Stereotypes

4. Ideology: Ideologies are defined
as networks of interpretation,
a coherent set of beliefs that people use to understand events and behaviors of other people; these beliefs are also used to predict behaviors and events
Ideologies exist in language, but are worked out in practice
Personal experience is not the only thing that informs your image of yourself, as it is also influenced by the beliefs of your family and friends, the beliefs circulated by the media, and the beliefs common in the community you live in.
Ideologies are the “stuff” with which rhetors work
Taken directly from Chapter 1 of “Ancient Rhetoric for Contemporary Students” by Sharon Crawley and Debra Hawhee.
Crowley, Sharon, and Debra Hawhee. Ancient Rhetorics for Contemporary Students. 4th ed. Boston: Pearson, Print.

5. Ideology Continued… Ideologies are a set of statements that
tell us how to understand ourselves and others.
tell us how to understand nature and our relation to it, as well.
Ideologies help us decide how to value what we know – they tell us what is thought to be true, right, good, or beautiful in a community

6. Identity, Tropes, Archetypes, and Stereotypes…
Driving Questions for Lesson:
How do tropes, schemes and archetypes relate to our understanding of writing?
How can understanding tropes and schemes help us understand rhetorical appeals?
How do tropes and schemes impact our thinking? How do they work to persuade?

7. Identity
Consider this quote from a character in Sherman Alexie’s book “Absolutely True Diart of a Part- Time Indian”:
“I realized that, sure, I was a Spokane Indian. I belonged to that tribe. But I also belonged to the tribe of American immigrants. And to the tribe of basketball players. And to the tribe of bookworms. And the tribe of cartoonists. And the tribe of chronic masturbators. And the tribe of teenage boys. And the tribe of small-town kids. And the tribe of Pacific Northwesterners. And the tribe of tortilla chips-and-salsa lovers. And the tribe of poverty. And the tribe of funeral-goers. And the tribe of beloved sons. And the tribe of boys who really missed their best friends. It was a huge realization. And that's when I knew that I was going to be okay. (217)”

8. Identity
The character’s identity is layered with all the things he participates in, what he likes to do, the people he chooses and the people he doesn’t choose, the area he’s from, and the circumstances of his life.
All contribute to his personal identity…
Rather than just identifying with one of those “tribes” aka groups of people, he identifies instead with all of them.
How many of the “tribes” that he named also have a set of beliefs or ideologies that go along with them?
How many are informal identifiers, descriptors that contribute to his perceived identity?

9. Identity Identity is defined in two ways:
The collective aspect of the set of characteristics by which a thing is definitively recognizable or known
The set of behavioral or personal characteristics by which an individual is recognizable as a member of a group
Chosen ideologies are a part of someone’s identity…

10. Identity in Rhetoric
When we talk about the act of definition or “defining the audience”, we attempt to assume the audiences identity.
By doing so we can better understand how the appeals that are used are specific to the audience
Take a second to write down details of your own identity, and ideologies with which you subscribe (or recognize have influence who you are today).

11. What is an Archetype?
In literature, films, etc. an archetype is a typical character, an action or a situation that seems to represent such universal patterns of human nature.
Character Archetype: a very typical example of a certain person or thing; types that fit fundamental human motifs.
A motif is a recurring subject, theme, etc. especially in a literary work or artistic or musical work
Examples of Character Archetypes: The Hero, The Villain, The Innocent Youth, The Mother Figure, the Scapegoat

12. Why do authors use archetypes?
The use of archetypical characters gives a literary work a universal acceptance, as readers identify the characters and situations in their social and cultural context.
By using common archetypes, the writers attempt to impart realism to their works, as the characters are drawn from the experiences of the world.

13. What is a Trope?
Tropes are devices (rhetorical not literary devices) and conventions that a writer can reasonably rely on as being present in the audience members’ minds and expectations.
A trope is also any rhetorical device, as metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, and irony, that consists in the use of words in other than their literal sense. (ie: figures of speech)
Tropes are different from archetypes because they are typically culturally specific.

14. Character Tropes
Tropes, like character archetypes, are used to help readers identify with characters, but exist only in specific cultural contexts.
For example, “The Nerd” is a trope seen in movies, television, and literature. It is not an archetype because it is typically seen in Western culture. As an archetype this character may be seen as “The Scholar”. 

15. Tropes Cont.
Trope is a word that can be used for a lot of different instances, thought the meanings is the same, the application of the word is different.
Trope can be used to describe the actual language devices a speaker or writer is using
Trope can be used to describe the reoccurrence of specific language to represent something else – metonymy and synecdoche, types of tropes, can also be represented by images or people (in this case characters)
IE: The nerd in glasses…
Tropes are widely associated with schemes (defined on next slide)

16. Tropes vs. Schemes:
Scheme is defined as “figures of speech that deal with word order, syntax, letters, and sounds, rather than the meaning of words.”
Trope is defined as “figures of speech with an unexpected twist in the meaning of words.”
Tropes and schemes are both figures of speech that add color and interest to language, are categories of devices used in speech and writing, and fall under the canon of “style” of rhetoric
These are devices (though not literary devices) that contribute to the style of the author and can help to get the point across. One way they do this is by appealing to the emotions of the recipient.
The main difference between a trope and a scheme is:
A trope changes the meaning of an expression
A scheme changes the order of the words
Source:

17. Stereotypes
Stereotype: A widely held but fixed and oversimplified image or idea of a particular type of person or thing.
Stereotypes can be offensive when directed at certain gender, racial, cultural, and social groups. 
For example: The Dumb Blonde, Dumb Jock, etc. are stereotypes that exist in society and are often represented in different forms of media. 

18. Stereotypes cont.
It is important to note that stereotypes are not literary, but stereotypes can exist about characters and are often a theme when discussing identity particularly when discussing subjects like race and culture.
Stereotypes are the literary cousin of tropes.
Racial and cultural stereotypes may be seen as a conflict in some works…
…can be seen an accumulated advantage or disadvantage on the road to success (remember our discussion on privilege)

19. Stereotypes Vs. Tropes
Characters such as the "Dumb Blonde" or "Dumb Jock" when represented in media and literature are actually character tropes in the context.
Tropes may include things that are seen as stereotypical because they are representing commonly used characters in the context of a specific culture. 
This powerpoint offers to related definitions of TROPES.

20. Types of Tropes Reference to One Thing as Another
Metaphor Reference to one thing as another, implying a comparison.
Simile Explicit comparison of one thing to another.
Synecdoche A whole is represented by naming one of its parts.
Metonymy Reference to something or someone by naming one of its attributes.
Personification Reference to abstractions or inanimate objects as though they had human qualities or abilities.

21. Types of Tropes Wordplay and puns
Antanaclasis Repetition of a word in two different senses.
Paronomasia Using words that sound alike but that differ in meaning (punning).
Syllepsis Using a word differently in relation to two or more words that it modifies or governs (sometimes called zeugma).
Onomatopoeia Use of words whose sound correspond with their semantic value.

22. Types of Tropes Substitutions
Anthimeria Substitution of one part of speech for another.
Periphrasis Substitution of a descriptive word or phrase for a proper name or of a proper name for a quality associated with the name.

23. Types of Tropes Overstatement/Understatement
Hyperbole Use of exaggerated terms for emphasis or effect.
Auxesis Reference to something with a name disproportionately greater than its nature (a kind of hyberbole).
Litotes Understatement used deliberately.
Meiosis Reference to something with a name disproportionately lesser than its nature (a kind of litotes). 

24. Types of Schemes Structures of Balance
Parallelism Similarity of structure in a pair or series of related words, phrases, or clauses.
Isocolon A series of similarly structured elements having the same length.
Tricolon Three parallel elements of the same length occurring together.
Antithesis Juxtaposition of contrasting ideas (often in parallel structure).
Climax Generally, the arrangement of words, phrases, or clauses in an order of increasing importance, often in parallel structure.

25. Types of Schemes Changes in word order Omission
Anastrophe Inversion of natural word order.
Parenthesis Insertion of a verbal unit that interrupts normal syntactical flow.
Apposition Addition of an adjacent, coordinate, explanatory element.
Omission
Ellipsis Omission of a word or words readily implied by context.
Asyndeton Omission of conjunctions between a series of clauses.
Brachylogia Omission of conjunctions between a series of words.
(Polysyndeton) Opposite of asyndeton, a superabundance of conjunctions

26. Types of Schemes Repetition
Alliteration Repetition of initial or medial consonants in two or more adjacent words.
Assonance Repetition of similar vowel sounds, preceded and followed by different consonants, in the stressed syllables of adjacent words.
Polyptoton Repetition of words derived from the same root.
Antanaclasis Repetition of a word in two different senses.
Anaphora Repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginning of successive clauses.
Epistrophe Repetition of the same word or group of words at the ends of successive clauses.

27. Types of Tropes Semantic Inversions
Rhetorical Question Asking a question for a purpose other than obtaining the information requested.
Irony Using language in such a way as to convey a meaning opposite of what the terms used denote (often by exaggeration).
Oxymoron Placing two ordinarily opposing terms adjacent to one another. A compressed paradox.
Paradox An apparently contradictory statement that contains a measure of truth.

28. Types of Schemes
Epanalepsis Repetition at the end of a clause of the word that occurred at the beginning of the clause.
Anadiplosis Repetition of the last word of one clause at the beginning of the following clause.
Climax Repetition of the scheme anadiplosis at least three times, with the elements arranged in an order of increasing importance.
Antimetabole Repetition of words, in successive clauses, in reverse grammatical order. (Sometimes mistaken as chiasmus)
Chiasmus Repetition of grammatical structures in reverse order in successive phrases or clauses (not to be mistaken with antimetabole).

29. Schemes and Tropes: Features of text
From the next slide, create a tree map for kinds of tropes and kind of schemes. The definitions for each are d the answers.
Schemes and tropes both have to do with using language in an unusual or "figured" way:
Trope: An artful deviation from the ordinary or principal signification of a word.
“I work like a slave" [trope: simile]
Scheme: An artful deviation from the ordinary arrangement of words.
"I don't know if I'm working my job or my job, me" schemes: ellipsis, personification]

30. So here’s the breakdown:
Stereotypes: Not literary. We avoid using this term to talk about classifying characters, settings, plot points, etc..
Archetypes: The broad, all-encompassing norms of the stories humanity tells. The same archetypes can be found in all or nearly all cultures.
Tropes: Culturally-specific norms in storytelling. Tropes are cultural classifications of archetypes. There can be many tropes found under the umbrella of one archetype. Literary devices are not tropes (i.e. narrators, foreshadowing, flashbacks, etc.).
Clichés: Overused and hackneyed phrases, characters, settings, plot points, etc.. Archetypes do not become clichéd. Tropes can become clichés if they are used too often and readers get bored of them. Clichés are defined by a loss of the meaning or as a distraction from the story.

31. Use of Concepts in Rhetoric
When students are asked to rhetorically analyze something they need to identify:
the rhetorical situation, including the exigence and the primary audience
This is where ideologies and identity play a huge role, as they work to contribute to context of the rhetorical situation.
the appeals used by the speaker, and how those appeals work together
This is where understanding stereotypes, archetypes, motifs, etc. is helpful, as they appeal to mass audiences.
the features of the text used to appeal to the audience
This is where being able to identify tropes and schemes will be helpful, but students also need to know why the trope or scheme is used (which appeal it supports, and why it is successful for the audience)
Naming the trope and scheme is not as important as identifying the strategy used by the author or speaker
(Meaning: Knowing what the “named” trope or scheme does is more important than the name of the trope or scheme.)