1. Observational Research
Unit 4

2. Observational Methods Direct Observation
Without Intervention (Naturalistic)
With Intervention
Structured Observation
Participant Observation
Disguised
Undisguised
Field Experiment
Indirect Observation
Physical Traces
Archival Records

3. USING OBSERVATIONAL METHODS
Two categories of direct observational methods:
Observation without Intervention
Observation with Intervention
Observational methods can also be classified according to the methods for recording behavior.
Comprehensive record of behavior
Selected behaviors

4. Observation without Intervention
Naturalistic Observation: Observation in natural (“real-world”) settings without an attempt to intervene or change the situation.
Goals: Describe behavior as it normally occurs, examine relationships among naturally occurring variables.
Naturalistic observation helps to establish the external validity of laboratory findings.
Naturalistic observation is used when ethical and moral considerations prevent experimental manipulation.

5. Observation with Intervention
Most psychological research involves observation with intervention.
Researchers typically choose from three methods of observation with intervention in natural settings:
Participant observation
Structured observation
Field experiment

6. Participant Observation
Observer is an active participant in the natural setting he or she observes.
undisguised: people in the setting know they are being observed
disguised: people don’t know they are being observed
Disguised participant observation helps control for reactivity, one of the main problems associated with observation.

7. Participant Observation
Reactivity occurs when people change their usual behavior because they know they are being observed.
Participant observers may sometimes lose their objectivity by becoming too involved in the situation.
Participant observers may influence the behavior of people they are observing.

8. Structured Observation
Researcher sets up (structures) a specific situation in order to observe people’s behavior.
Examples: clinical and developmental observations of behavior, psychological testing
Structured observation is useful when behavior is difficult to observe as it naturally occurs.
Researchers often use confederates to create the structured situation.
Problems occur when observers don’t follow the same procedures across observations or observers, and when important variables are not controlled.

9. Field Experiment
Researcher manipulates an independent variable in a natural setting and observes behavior (dependent variable).
There must be two or more conditions to compare (independent variable).
Researchers often use confederates to create these different conditions.
Researchers attempt to have the most control in field experiments.

10. Recording Behavior
Researchers can obtain a comprehensive record of people’s behavior (e.g., video tapes) or select specific behaviors to record.
The method for recording behavior determines how the results of the study are eventually measured, summarized, analyzed, and reported.
Qualitative
Quantitative

11. Qualitative Records
Researchers use narrative records when they want a complete (comprehensive) reproduction of people’s behavior.
Examples: videotapes, audiotapes, field notes
Narrative records should be made during or soon after behavior is observed.
Observers must be carefully trained.
Advantage: Can review the record often to observe behavior.
Disadvantage: Costly, time-consuming.

12. Quantitative Records
Selected Behaviors: Researchers choose the behavior they want to observe and ignore other behaviors.
Researchers need to decide how they will measure the behavior.
Examples: frequency of behavior, duration
Recording techniques include checklists and electronic recording and tracking.