1. Bilingualism, Multilingualism and Identity
M. Cristina Caimotto

2. “Bilingual”: what does it mean?
‘In this chapter I use the terms “bilingualism” and “multilingualism” interchangeably to refer to the routine use of two or more languages in a community’ (Romaine 385)
2 languages
Why do people speak two languages?
Issues likely to arise in bilingual / multilingual communities
Move towards the definition of community

3. Defining communities Which communities do you belong to?
At any given time a person’s identity is a heterogeneous set made up of all the names or identities, given to and taken up by her. (Tabouret-Keller 316)
[…] individual identity and social identity are mediated by language: Language features are the link which binds individual and social identities together (317)
Idea of multiple communities and layered identity for each individual

4. Defining communities
What is crucial […] to most definitions of community is the sense of perceived solidarity and interaction based on reference to a particular language and the relationships among people who identify themselves as members of that community. (Romaine 387)
Propose a definition of community
Stases = imagined communities (388)
Introduce “balance of power” / boundaries

5. Language and boundaries
Language and the identities they carry with them generally imply a boundary marking function: The same identity prevails where and as long as the same language is spoken. Has this ever been true? (Tabouret-Keller 319)
Try to answer the question
Introduce “minority” from Romaine

6. Linguistic minorities
The label “minority” if often simply a euphemism for non-elite or subordinate groups, whether they constitute a numerical majority or minority in relation to some other group that is politically and socially dominant (Romaine 389)

7. reification and totemization of it
Language legitimacy
Naming a language
reification and totemization of it
Reification involves some body of doctrine (grammars, lexicons, a literature)
Totemization is the adoption of a language as one of the defining social properties of a group. (Tabouret-Keller 318)
To reify: to regard (something abstract) as a material or concrete thing
Defining property: elicit examples about Flemish, Basque, Catalan, Welsh… Romaine 389 Tabouret-Keller 319

8. Why are people bilingual?
Economic necessity
Civil servants (administrative policies)
Prestige (language of the educated such as Latin and Greek)
Religion
DIGLOSSIA: high and low variety; functional specialization between languages (Romaine 393)
Elicit from students first
the Civil Service = the government departments responsible for putting central government plans into action

9. Accomodation theory
Convergence and divergence (Giles in Tabouret-Keller 322)
Giles’ theory: people adjust their speech style to be socially integrated into existing groups.
Le Page’s theory: groups only exist in the minds of individuals and speech acts are acts of projection
Explain difference between 2 theories presented on pages 322-3

10. Identification process (Tabouret-Keller 324)
Not envisioned in the frame of a dual relationship between A (groups) and B individuals but:
Identification between A and B is possible only insofar as these two have access to and are part of C (= language as the foundation of human condition)
Making sense means to depend on words

11. An English-speaking community?
There are more speakers of English as a second language than there are native English speakers
Diglossia on an international scale
Bilingual countries were created not to promote bilingualism, but to guarantee the maintenance and use of two or more languages in the same nation (Romaine 398)
Elicit issues related to English as a Lingua Franca
Education: difference between foreign-language instruction and bilingual education for minority students
De jure vs. de facto bilingualism

12. Closing debate Is linguistic diversity positive or negative?
How is it perceived?
Babel (Romaine 402-3)

13. Thank you