1. Conservation Genetics
Image of DNA double helix from Wikipedia

2. Conservation of Genetic Diversity
We are interested in conservation of genetic diversity spanning the Tree of Life. For example, we wish to conserve high levels of phylogenetic diversity. Even so, for this lecture we will focus on species-level genetic diversity and population genetics.
Image from

3. Conservation of Genetic Diversity
We are interested in conservation of genetic diversity spanning the Tree of Life. For example, we wish to conserve high levels of phylogenetic diversity. Even so, for this lecture we will focus on species-level genetic diversity and population genetics.
Image from

4. Conservation of Genetic Diversity Some Mechanisms of Evolution
Evolution – allele frequency change through time in a population
Some Mechanisms of Evolution
Mutation
Genetic accommodation – adaptive evolution
Random processes (e.g., genetic drift)
Gene flow via emigration & immigration
Artificial selection
Natural selection (Thank you, Darwin [& Wallace]!) – adaptive evolution
Sexual selection (Thank you, Darwin!) – adaptive evolution

5. Conservation of Genetic Diversity
Mutations (substitutions, insertions, deletions, inversions)
– ultimate sources of most genetic variation
Generation 1
Generation 2
A mutation that arises in a germ-line cell can be passed on to offspring.
Small populations provide few opportunities
for positive mutations to arise

6. Conservation of Genetic Diversity
Gene flow – exchange of genes between populations
Pop. A
Pop. B
Genetic diversity erodes especially quickly
in small, isolated populations

7. Conservation of Genetic Diversity
Inbreeding – results from mating by closely related individuals
Pop. A
Generation 1
Pop. B
Generation 2
In this case, assume that each set of parents produces one male and one female offspring. An individual has fewer opportunities for outbreeding in Generation 2 in the smaller population. Progeny from inbred parents have increased likelihood of inheriting alleles that are identical by descent, which increases the risk of expression of deleterious alleles.
33% chance of mating with sibling
50% chance of mating with sibling
Genetic diversity erodes especially quickly
in small, isolated populations

8. Conservation of Genetic Diversity
Random processes (demographic bottlenecks, genetic drift, founder effects)
Generation 1
Generation 2
Genetic diversity erodes especially quickly
in small, isolated populations

9. Conservation of Genetic Diversity
Not all phenotypic diversity results from genetic diversity
Genetic diversity helps determine evolutionary potential
R. A. Fisher (1890 – 1962)
An architect of the Modern Synthesis
From Ch. 2 in Groom et al.
Fisher’s Fundamental Theorem: "The rate of increase in fitness [owing to selection] of any organism at any time is equal to its genetic variance in fitness at that time"
Photo from Wikipedia

10. Conservation of Genetic Diversity
Genetic diversity occurs at 3 levels in a species’ gene pool:
Within individuals (e.g., heterozygosity – the proportion of gene loci in an individual that contains alternative forms of alleles)
Among individuals in a population
Among populations

11. Conservation of Genetic Diversity
Genetic diversity helps determine evolutionary potential
But, “gene pools are becoming diminished and fragmented
into gene puddles” (Foose 1983)
A gene pool for a population is analogous to a species pool for a metacommunity (as in mainland species pool in Island Biogeography Theory).
Foose, T. J The relevance of captive populations to the conservation of biotic diversity. In C. M. Schonewald-Cox, S. M. Chambers, B. MacBryde & L. Thomas, eds. Genetics and Conservation: A Reference for Managing Wild Animal and Plant Populations, pp Benjamin/Cummings, Menlo Park, CA.
Image from

12. Conservation of Genetic Diversity
Genetically effective population size (Ne) – the number of individuals that would result in the same level of inbreeding, or decrease in genetic diversity through time, if the population were an idealized,
panmictic (randomly mating) population
Typically  Ne < N
(Because of variance in reproductive success and family sizes)
Miller, Craig R. & Lisette P. Waits The history of effective population size and genetic diversity in the Yellowstone grizzly (Ursus arctos): Implications for conservation. PNAS 100:
Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem grizzlies:
N ≈ 500
Ne ≈ 80
Image from

13. Conservation of Genetic Diversity
Genetically effective population size (Ne) – the number of individuals that would result in the same level of inbreeding, or decrease in genetic diversity through time, if the population were an idealized,
panmictic (randomly mating) population
Typically  Ne < N
(Because of variance in reproductive success and family sizes)
Generation 1: ♀ ♂ ♀ ♂ ♀ ♂ ♀ ♂ ♀ ♂
Generation 2: ♀ ♂ ♀ ♂ ♀ ♂ ♀ ♂ ♀ ♂

14. Extinction Vortex
Small populations are at risk of extinction owing to the “one-two punch” from demographics and
genetics
Also see the classic original source: Gilpin, M. E. & M. E. Soulé Minimum Viable Populations: Processes of Species Extinction. In M. E. Soulé. Conservation Biology: The Science of Scarcity and Diversity. Sinauer, Sunderland, Mass. pp. 19–34.
Image from Campbell & Reece (2008) Biology 8th ed., Benjamin Cummings Pubs.

15. Genetic Tools for Conservation
Pedigree analysis – especially useful for captive populations
Estimation of relatedness (in the absence of pedigrees)
Analysis of parentage and mating systems
Forensics
Species or population identification
Estimation of population size
Image of elephant ivory from

16. Case Study: Eurasian wolf
Vilà et al. (2003) Rescue of a severely bottlenecked wolf (Canis lupus) population by a single immigrant
“We show here that the genetic diversity of the severely bottlenecked
and geographically isolated Scandinavian population of grey wolves
(Canis lupus), founded by only two individuals [in 1983, after centuries of
persecution that extirpated them from the Scandinavian peninsula by 1960s],
was recovered by the arrival of a single immigrant.”
As in North America, wolves have long been persecuted in Europe.
Vilà et al Rescue of a severely bottlenecked wolf (Canis lupus) population by a single immigrant. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 270:91-97.
Abstract
“The fragmentation of populations is an increasingly important problem in the conservation of endangered
species. Under these conditions, rare migration events may have important effects for the rescue of small
and inbred populations. However, the relevance of such migration events to genetically depauperate natural
populations is not supported by empirical data. We show here that the genetic diversity of the severely
bottlenecked and geographically isolated Scandinavian population of grey wolves (Canis lupus), founded
by only two individuals, was recovered by the arrival of a single immigrant. Before the arrival of this
immigrant, for several generations the population comprised only a single breeding pack, necessarily
involving matings between close relatives and resulting in a subsequent decline in individual heterozygosity.
With the arrival of just a single immigrant, there is evidence of increased heterozygosity, signi. cant
outbreeding (inbreeding avoidance), a rapid spread of new alleles and exponential population growth.
Our results imply that even rare interpopulation migration can lead to the rescue and recovery of isolated
and endangered natural populations.”
Quote from Vilà et al. (2003) Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B.; photo & map of Europe from Wikipedia

17. Case Study: Eurasian wolf
Vilà et al. (2003) Rescue of a severely bottlenecked wolf (Canis lupus) population by a single immigrant
A single immigrant arrived onto the Scandinavian peninsula in 1991
100 12
Estimated population size 50
Number of breeding packs
Vilà et al Rescue of a severely bottlenecked wolf (Canis lupus) population by a single immigrant. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 270:91-97. 8 4
1983
1991
2001
Figure from Vilà et al. (2003) Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B.

18. Case Study: Eurasian wolf
Vilà et al. (2003) Rescue of a severely bottlenecked wolf (Canis lupus) population by a single immigrant
A single immigrant arrived onto the Scandinavian peninsula in 1991
Each circle = 1 wolf
1.0
Founding female
(est. date of birth = 1978)
Pups with d.o.b.
< 1991 (only 1 bottlenecked, inbred pack)
(19 autosomal microsatellite loci)
Individual heterozygosity
0.5
Vilà et al Rescue of a severely bottlenecked wolf (Canis lupus) population by a single immigrant. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 270:91-97.
Offspring of immigrant male
Other pups with d.o.b.  1991
1978
1983
1991
2001
Figure from Vilà et al. (2003) Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B.

19. Case Study: North American wolf
Adams et al. (2011) Genomic sweep and potential genetic rescue during limiting environmental conditions in an isolated wolf population
“…a male wolf (Canis lupus)… immigrated [in 1997]… across Lake Superior ice to the small, inbred wolf population in Isle Royale National Park. The immigrant’s fitness so exceeded that of native wolves that within 2.5 generations he was related to every individual in the population… resulting in a selective sweep of the total genome.”
Adams, Jennifer R. et al Genomic sweep and potential genetic rescue during limiting environmental conditions in an isolated wolf population. Proc. Roy. Soc. B
Abstract
“Genetic rescue, in which the introduction of one or more unrelated individuals into an inbred population
results in the reduction of detrimental genetic effects and an increase in one or more vital rates, is a potentially
important management tool for mitigating adverse effects of inbreeding. We used molecular
techniques to document the consequences of a male wolf (Canis lupus) that immigrated, on its own,
across Lake Superior ice to the small, inbred wolf population in Isle Royale National Park. The immigrant’s
fitness so exceeded that of native wolves that within 2.5 generations, he was related to every
individual in the population and his ancestry constituted 56 per cent of the population, resulting in
a selective sweep of the total genome. In other words, all the male ancestry (50% of the total ancestry)
descended from this immigrant, plus 6 per cent owing to the success of some of his inbred offspring.
The immigration event occurred in an environment where space was limiting (i.e. packs occupied all
available territories) and during a time when environmental conditions had deteriorated (i.e. wolves’
prey declined). These conditions probably explain why the immigration event did not obviously improve
the population’s demography (e.g. increased population numbers or growth rate). Our results show that
the beneficial effects of gene flow may be substantial and quickly manifest, short-lived under some circumstances,
and how the demographic benefits of genetic rescue might be masked by environmental
conditions.”
Quote & photo from Adams et al. (2011) Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B.; map of North America from Wikipedia

20. Case Study: North American wolf
Adams et al. (2011) Genomic sweep and potential genetic rescue during limiting environmental conditions in an isolated wolf population
“The population inbreeding coefficient (f) averaged over each
individual present in the population from 1950 to
Our results show that the beneficial effects of gene flow
may be substantial and quickly manifest…” f
Adams, Jennifer R. et al Genomic sweep and potential genetic rescue during limiting environmental conditions in an isolated wolf population. Proc. Roy. Soc. B
Abstract
“Genetic rescue, in which the introduction of one or more unrelated individuals into an inbred population
results in the reduction of detrimental genetic effects and an increase in one or more vital rates, is a potentially
important management tool for mitigating adverse effects of inbreeding. We used molecular
techniques to document the consequences of a male wolf (Canis lupus) that immigrated, on its own,
across Lake Superior ice to the small, inbred wolf population in Isle Royale National Park. The immigrant’s
fitness so exceeded that of native wolves that within 2.5 generations, he was related to every
individual in the population and his ancestry constituted 56 per cent of the population, resulting in
a selective sweep of the total genome. In other words, all the male ancestry (50% of the total ancestry)
descended from this immigrant, plus 6 per cent owing to the success of some of his inbred offspring.
The immigration event occurred in an environment where space was limiting (i.e. packs occupied all
available territories) and during a time when environmental conditions had deteriorated (i.e. wolves’
prey declined). These conditions probably explain why the immigration event did not obviously improve
the population’s demography (e.g. increased population numbers or growth rate). Our results show that
the beneficial effects of gene flow may be substantial and quickly manifest, short-lived under some circumstances,
and how the demographic benefits of genetic rescue might be masked by environmental
conditions.”
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
Figure from Adams et al. (2011) Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B.

21. Case Study: Florida panther
Johnson et al. (2010) Genetic restoration of the
Florida panther (Puma concolor coryi)
Eight females were translocated from Texas to Florida in 1995; “panther numbers increased threefold, genetic heterozygosity doubled, survival and fitness measures improved, and inbreeding correlates declined significantly”
Johnson, Warren E. et al Genetic restoration of the Florida panther. Science 329:
“Fig. 1. (A and B) Southern Florida (1995, left; 2007, right) with locations of
breeding-age Florida panthers (>1.5 years old), geographic features, number
(N) alive, and effective population size (Ne). Labeled colored areas in (A) demarcate
public land (23): Fakahatchee Strand Preserve State Park (FSPSP),
Picayune Strand State Forest (PSSF), Florida Panther National Wildlife Refuge
(FPNWR), BCNP, Big Cypress Seminole Indian Reservation (SEM), Okaloacoochee
Slough State Forest (OSSF), and Everglades National Park (EVER) and in (B) show
panther habitat. Circles are coded by ancestry: CFP [canonical Florida panthers],
TX females (with a B if a successful breeder), EVG [Everglades Florida panthers],
AdmFP [admixed Florida panthers], and SEM. Pie charts illustrate the genetic
heritage of the population (fig. S1 and table S2) (13).”
Figure from Johnson et al. (2010) Science

22. Torres del Paine, Chile – not only where I developed my stylish fashion sense (see photos), but was the defining experience that set me on my career path…