1. Developing our understanding of Language and Gender research
Starter: answer these questions with reference to the reading you have been doing.
Summarise what Lakoff (1975) says about the characteristics of female talk?
Who is Otto Jespersen (1922) and how did he conceptualise gender differences in language?
What criticisms were made of Lakoff’s work?
In what ways could Lakoff’s work be considered dated?
What does Jenny Cheshire (1982) argue? Extension: how does Vivien de Klerk (1992) develop this idea?
Although Pamela Fishman (1983) identified similar trends in women’s talk to Cheshire, she came to very different conclusions. What were they?
What are the six contrasts in male/female talk identified by Deborah Tannen (1990)?

2. Deficit v difference
Using what you have read, can you explain what is meant by the deficit and difference models of language and gender?

3. Two more research summaries of the difference model
Koenraad Kuiper (1991) found that in all-male talk amongst members of a rugby team, men were more likely to pay less attention to the need to save face and instead use insults as a way of expressing solidarity. Similar findings on all-male talk have also highlighted this difference in co-operation amongst all-male groups.

4. Evaluating the views looked at so far
From your own experience, consider your own views and opinions on the different models.
Do you believe Lakoff’s views are still valid?
Do you think men are more dominant in conversation? If so, how do men dominate?
Do you think that men and women speak differently? If so, what do you think these differences are?

5. Deborah Cameron (2008) The Myth of Mars and Venus: Do Men and Women Really Speak Different Languages?
Cameron has criticised the idea that there are innate differences in male and female speech. She argues that this is ‘one of the great myths of our time’.
Cameron argues that these myths have evolved around ideas such as that women pay more attention to being good communicators than men; that men have a natural desire to be competitive that results in an aggressive speech style; that women talk about people, relationships and feelings while men talk about facts and things.
Cameron challenges various aspects of research undertaken by Lakoff, Fishman and Tannen, and offers a detailed revaluation of the stereotypes and discourses around male and female talk.
In fact, she argues that these myths have acted to shape our expectations of men and women, and the types of behaviour that we deem to be normal or deviant. In short, they continue to promote further myth-making.

6. Further criticisms of the deficit and difference models
Recent research in language and gender have moved away from categorising male and female speech styles as polarised and driven by biological differences.
Instead, recent research has focused on how speakers construct and perform gendered identities for themselves, which may either draw on or challenge perceived stereotypes.
Gender is seen as something that speakers and writers ‘do’ as part of a deliberate projecting of identity.
Janet Hyde (2005) proposes a ‘gender similarities hypothesis’ which suggests that there are substantially more similarities than differences between male and female language, and that any differences are more likely to be due to age, class, ethnicity, education, occupation, sexuality etc.
Similarly, Judith Butler, in her 1990 book Gender Trouble, argues that it is a mistake to reinforce a binary view of gender and to assert that ‘women’ are a group with common characteristics and interests. She describes gender ‘performativity’, that language is used to project an identity: in this context, gender is ‘performed’ rather than an innate, biological difference in language – we are conforming to social norms.

7. Applying this to data
Read the short section of dialogue on the worksheet.
In the light of what you have learnt about different models of gender research, how do you respond to this data?
Does it confirm/challenge any of the research models we have discussed today?

8. Evaluating
Do you agree that there ARE innate differences in men’s and women’s language? Or should we ignore gender when discussing spoken language data?
Men
Women
Dominate a conversation by topic initiation, topic shifts, holding the floor, lack of turn-yielding clues, interrupting and generally speaking more.
More submissive in conversation and likely to speak less. Unlikely to interrupt, initiate or change topics, or attempt to hold the floor.
Using a more informal register through their use of accent, taboo, slang, dialect etc. Likely to use covert prestige to sustain a masculine identity.
More likely to use overt prestige to help create a feminine ideneity and succumb to stereotypes on how a ‘lady-like’ women should talk.
More likely to be factual, competitive, direct and detached when speaking while maintaining a need for status.
More likely to be supportive, cooperative, polite, apologetic and emotional while speaking.
How plausible do you find these distinctions between male and female talk?

9. Homework
To continue your preparation for your individual presentations.
You may find this website helpful:
Next lesson we will be practising looking at gender through the lens of data. The lesson afterwards will be in the Library for you to complete your individual presentations and research.