1. Sentences

2. Imperative sentences
imperative sentences are normally used to direct someone to do something
the politeness marker please softens the abruptness of the imperative
the subject element is normally omitted and the lexical verb is in the base form
Be silent, please!
Please, stop making that noise!

3. Imperative sentences
Imperatives are assumed to be in the second person
Auxiliaries do not normally occur, but do can be used to soften the imperative
do be quiet!
or to make the imperative negative
don’t stop talking

4. Exclamative sentences
exclamative sentences involve the use of the wh-words how and what
how and what are attached to a sentence element which is fronted
what is used if the fronted element is a NP
how is used if the fronted element is an AdjP or an AdvP
sometimes exclamative sentences are verbless
e.g. What a lovely day (it is)!
How amazing (that is)!

5. Structural variation
a device used to place greater focus on one part of a sentence
structural variation does not change sentence type
structural variation is realized through extraposition or cleft-sentences

6. Extraposition
extraposition: moving a linguistic item (normally a subordinate clause) out of its normal clause position and placing it later in the clause or sentence
That Jane is very thoughtful is common knowledge
Structure after extraposition:
It is common knowledge that Jane is very thoughtful

7. Extraposition
That Jane is very thoughtful (S) is (V) common knowledge (C)
It (Sdummy) is (V) common knowledge (C) that Jane is very thoughtful > extraposed subordinate clause

8. Why do we extrapose? The second sentence is easier to understand
In the first sentence we can see a high information load at a point in which the main verb (which has a pivotal function!) has not yet been introduced.
The dummy subject signals the removal of the actual subject to a later position > it’s referred to as anticipatory it

9. Other structures
The extraposed element is not necessarily a finite that-clause, nor a subject > see examples on page 156.
Through extraposition, the most important part of the information in the sentence can be moved to the end where it will receive greater attention.

10. Cleft sentence
A restructured sentence consisting of the dummy subject it followed by the verb be and then the focus of the sentence followed by a relative clause or a that-clause
The cleft sentence marks the focus of information in written English. The rest of the clause is taken as given, and a contrast is inferred with other items which might have filled the focal position in the sentence. Thus each of the following sentences has an implied negative.

11. example John wore his best suit to the dance last night S as focus
It was JOHN who wore his best suit to the DANCE last night
Od as focus
It was his best SUIT (that) John wore to the DANCE last night
Atime as focus
It was last NIGHT (that) John wore his best suit to the DANCE
Aplace as focus
It was to the DANCE that John wore his best SUIT last night

12. A real example
For as much as government can do and must do, it is ultimately the faith and determination of the American people upon which this nation relies. It is the kindness to take in a stranger when the levees break, the selflessness of workers who would rather cut their hours than see a friend lose their job which sees us through our darkest hours. It is the firefighter's courage to storm a stairway filled with smoke, but also a parent's willingness to nurture a child, that finally decides our fate.
(from Obama’s speech on Inauguration Day)

13. Existential there
?Six bottles of white wine and four of red (S) are (V) in the wine rack (C)
Ballard talks about “complement” here to refer to verb complementation > it is different from “complement” as a specific type of clause element (also called “predicative”) see p. 122
There (Sdummy) are (V) six bottles of white wine and four of red (C)

14. Focus
We normally expect the focus to come at the end of a sentence > end-focus
Extraposed and cleft structures enable us to shift the focus of the sentence
In speech > greater stress
In writing > underlining (e.g. page 159)
When an element is moved at the beginning of a sentence, we talk about fronting
When a subject is moved at the end of a clause or sentence, we talk about end-shift

15. Simple sentences simple sentences: consisting of just one clause
the clause in a simple sentence must be a main clause
I (S) know (V) a man who has an irrational fear of spiders. (O) relative clause
a man who has an irrational fear of spiders > NP
I (S) know (V) a man (O)

16. The man (S) knows (V) that his fear of spiders is irrational (O) subordinate that-clause
We can’t remove the object or part of it as in the previous example > this is a complex sentence

17. Compound sentences
compound sentences: linking two or more clauses on an equal basis so neither clause is dependent on the other
coordination: the process of linking sentences on an equal footing via coordinating conjunctions or coordinators (central coordinators > and, but, and or)
I read a book and she watched a film
She watched a film and I read a book
She watched a film while I read a book
While I read a book she watched a film
*and I read a book she watched a film
While =
subordinating
conjunction

18. Correlatives
special pairs of coordinators (either…or, both…and, neither…nor)
(n)either…(n)or may join phrases and clauses
Julia decided to take either the bus or the train
Julia liked neither her job nor the commuting
Neither did Julia like her job nor did she like commuting
whereas both… and may only join phrases, not clauses
Both Terry and Julia washed up
* Both Terry washed the dishes and Julia dried them

19. Ellipsis Terry cut the grass and Terry weeded the flower beds
Terry painted the ceiling and Julia painted the walls
Terry cut the grass and Ø weeded the flower beds
Terry painted the ceiling and Julia Ø the walls
Ellipsis is a feature of compound sentences, we can’t use it when one clause is subordinate to another
Since Terry cut the grass, he also weeded the flower beds
Terry painted the ceiling while Julia painted the walls

20. Complex sentences sentences consisting of at least two clauses
they must include at least one subordinate clause which may function as S, O, C, or A of the main clause
two or more clauses linked in an unequal relationship so that one is dependent on the other

21. Complex sentences
when a subordinate clause (finite or non-finite) makes up an entire element in a clause and grammatical incompleteness will result from its removal, then the sentence in which the subordinate clause appears is a complex sentence
That girl knows that you are here.
See examples p. 168
When Brian recovers from the flu (A) he (S) will ride (V) his bike (O) again (A)

22. Representing complex sentences
Guy knows that Brian has the flu
sentence
S V O
Guy knows subordinate clause
subordinating conjunction S V O
that Brian has the flu

23. Compound-complex sentences
compound-complex sentences: combination of coordination and subordination
Two coordinated main clauses and one subordinate clause:
Sara wanted a new bike and Heidi wanted one too if she could afford it
Two subordinate clauses which are coordinated:
Heidi wanted a new bike if she could afford it and if she saw one she liked

24. Adverbial clauses adverbials (As) in a clause may be represented by
adverbs
adverb phrases (AdvPs)
subordinate clauses
conditional clauses
If you want, we will go there
concessive clauses
Although you’re angry, we are going to do it
reason clauses
I’ll stay in bed since I don’t feel fine
purpose or result clauses
I’ll do this in order to achieve my goal

25. Homework Read Ballard’s book, pages 153 -175 (7.5 – 7.11)
Check the blog for new homework starting from the 29th (you’ll find a contest about an advert)