1. FIGURE 6.2. Hierarchical subdivision of the Roman centuration. From A Primer of GIS, 2nd edition, by Francis Harvey. Copyright 2016 by The Guilford Press.

2. FIGURE 6.3. Area of the U.S. PLS surveyed from the Fifth Meridian. From A Primer of GIS, 2nd edition, by Francis Harvey. Copyright 2016 by The Guilford Press.

3. FIGURE 6.5. PLS in western Washington State highlighting unusual 1/2 townships and ranges. These peculiar townships are the results of difficulties surveying in the alpine Olympic Mountain Range. Other distortions are also plainly visible. From A Primer of GIS, 2nd edition, by Francis Harvey. Copyright 2016 by The Guilford Press.

4. FIGURE 6.6. Different lengths of roads mean different lengths of bridges between systematic and nonsystematic surveyed areas. From Thrower, N. J. W. (1966). Original survey and land subdivision. Chicago: Rand McNally. Reprinted by permission of Norman J. W. Thrower. From A Primer of GIS, 2nd edition, by Francis Harvey. Copyright 2016 by The Guilford Press.

5. FIGURE 6.7. Different location systems used in surveying have significant geographical and environmental consequences. From Thrower, N. J. W. (1966). Original survey and land subdivision. Chicago: Rand McNally. Reprinted by permission of Norman J. W. Thrower. From A Primer of GIS, 2nd edition, by Francis Harvey. Copyright 2016 by The Guilford Press.

6. FIGURE 6.9. Simplified example of a metes-and-bounds description. From www.pdsstudio.com/PDSStudio/literature/Intro%20Land%20Information.pdf. Adapted by permission of Premier Data. From A Primer of GIS, 2nd edition, by Francis Harvey. Copyright 2016 by The Guilford Press.

7. FIGURE 6.10. State–Plane Coordinate System (SPCS) zones using the North American Datum 1927 (NAD 1927). From A Primer of GIS, 2nd edition, by Francis Harvey. Copyright 2016 by The Guilford Press.

8. FIGURE 6.11. Example of a location in the USNG coordinate system. From www.fgdc.gov/standards/documents/standards/xy_proj/fgdc_std_011_2001_usng.pdf. From A Primer of GIS, 2nd edition, by Francis Harvey. Copyright 2016 by The Guilford Press.

9. FIGURE 6.12. UTM zones is a widely used coordinate system based on usage of the Transverse Mercator projection in a global system of 6° strips from pole to pole. From https://zulu.ssc.nasa.gov/mrsid/docs/gc1990-utm_zones_on_worldmap.gif. From A Primer of GIS, 2nd edition, by Francis Harvey. Copyright 2016 by The Guilford Press.

10. FIGURE 6.13. Two-dimensional polar coordinate systems. From A Primer of GIS, 2nd edition, by Francis Harvey. Copyright 2016 by The Guilford Press.

11. FIGURE 6.14. A global tessellation based on hexagons. From www.spatial-effects.com. Reprinted by permission of Geoff Dutton. From A Primer of GIS, 2nd edition, by Francis Harvey. Copyright 2016 by The Guilford Press.

12. FIGURE 6.15. Representative scale and scale bars from a USGS map. From A Primer of GIS, 2nd edition, by Francis Harvey. Copyright 2016 by The Guilford Press.

13. FIGURE 6.16. Affine scale transformation operations (generalized). From A Primer of GIS, 2nd edition, by Francis Harvey. Copyright 2016 by The Guilford Press.

14. FIGURE 6.17. Map showing counties of Minnesota before (left) and after (right) scale transformation. From A Primer of GIS, 2nd edition, by Francis Harvey. Copyright 2016 by The Guilford Press.