1. C5 Revision Chemicals of the Natural Environment

2. Objective To revise the whole of C5

3. Three parts of the Earth Core Mantle Crust

4. The four spheres… Lithosphere: crust and upper mantle Hydrosphere: Oceans and rivers Atmosphere: Layer of air around the Earth Biosphere: sphere of life

5. Chemicals of the atmosphere 78% N 2 21% O 2 1% Ar 0.03% CO 2 Small amounts water vapour All chemicals are gases – low melting and boiling points

6. Molecules Most of the gases in the atmosphere consist of small molecules Argon exists as single atom Attractive forces between molecules weak – gases – moving too quickly

7. Bonds Small molecules such as O2 or H2 do not split up unless at extremely high temperatures Very strong bonds between atoms

8. Different bonds Single bondsDouble bonds

9. Covalent Bonding Non-metal atoms combine to form molecules – share electrons in their outer shells. Held by electrostatic attraction between two nuclei and shared pair electrons

10. Chemicals of the Hydrosphere Water has special properties: Liquid at room temperature, even though has a smaller mass than the gases in atmosphere. Melts at 0oC and boils at 100oC Water molecules have a greater tendency to stick together. Contracts until 0oC, then starts to expand – important in nature.

11. Good Solvent Good solvent for salts Most common salts do not dissolve ions, but water does. Does not conduct electricity, therefore does not contain charged particles free to move

12. Water molecules Three atoms appear at an angle The hydrogen region has a slight positive charge The oxygen region contains a slight negative charge

13. Water Molecule The angle is due to the fact that the electrons are not evenly shared. Oxygen has a greater share which explains the charges on each side of the molecule. Overall they are still electrically neutral.

14. Small Charges The small charges on opposite sides of the molecule cause slightly stronger attractive forces between them. Also help water dissolve ionic compounds by attracting the ions out of their crystals. Ice is less dense than water because of the molecules angular shape. They tend to line up in a very open structure.

15. Why is the sea salty? Soluble chemicals carried from rocks to sea in water cycle. Main chemical in sea sodium chloride Built up over millions of years. Most of compounds are salts – positive metal ions and negative non- metal ions.

16. Lithosphere Top part of lithosphere is crust Rocks include boulders, stones and pebbles

17. Rocks.. Rocks are made of one or more minerals Minerals are naturally occurring chemicals. Can be elements such as gold and silver More commonly compounds, such as silicon dioxide, calcium carbonate etc

18. Sandstone Made of mainly one mineral Silicon dioxide

19. Limestone Made mainly of calcium carbonate

20. Granite Mixture of quartz, feldspar and mica

21. Lithosphere Two most common elements in lithosphere are oxygen and silicon. These are abundant so form the major types of minerals, such as silicon dioxide.

22. Evaporite minerals Sea water contains lots of dissolved chemicals. When evaporates ionic compounds crystallise Rock salt – Halite is one example. Minerals formed this way are called evaporites – laid down millions of years ago

23. Ionic Bonding Ions held together strongly by the opposite charges of their ions E.g. Cl- and Na+ The structure is called a giant ionic structure. Takes lots of energy to break down

24. Silica Consists of silicon dioxide Commonest form is quartz One silicon to four oxygens Form a 3D giant covalent structure Strong and rigid

25. Silicon dioxide Very Hard – used as abrasive High mp and bp – linings for furnaces and high temp glassware Insoluble in water – building Electrical Insulator – silica glass used as insulator

26. Biosphere Biochemicals – Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen Carbon is base of all living things: Can form chains by joining to themselves Forms four strong covalent bonds so other atoms can join Means can make a variety of compounds. Most are polymers

27. Proteins Hair skin and muscle. Enzymes Polymers made from amino acids 20 different amino acids

28. Proteins from amino acids

29. Carbohydrates Carbon Oxygen Hydrogen Sugars such as glucose Photosynthesis produces glucose Glucose very soluble

30. Nucleic Acids DNA and RNA are nucleic acids Molecules that carry the genetic code Back bone of DNA is a polymer

31. Natural Cycles As living things grow die and decay, elements move between the spheres Carbon cycle Nitrogen cycle Humans have an effect on these cycles

32. Human Effects Carbon Cycle: burning fossil fuels. Raised CO 2 from 277ppm to 360ppm Nitrogen Cycle: Adding fertilisers to soil

33. Nitrogen Cycle Essential for biochemicals, especially proteins N 2 is a gas NO 3 - (nitrate) and NH 4 + (ammonium) are ions. Attracted to water molecules so makes them dissolve

34. Fixing Nitrogen Action of micro organisms (bacteria or algae) Chemical reaction in air during lightning strikes Haber process

35. Metals from Lithosphere Rocks which contain useful minerals are ores. Valuable minerals are often oxides or sulphides of metals. Ore examples: bauxite (aluminium), haematite (iron), rock salt (sodium). Gold occurs naturally so has been used for thousands years. Couldn’t use other metals until learned how to extract.

36. Mineral Processing Valuable mineral mixed with dirt and rock Separating this off is called ‘concentrating the ore.’ Issues: Reducing the ore; supply of ore; energy costs; impact on environment.

37. Extracting metals Reduction – removing oxygen (eg ZnO to Zn) Reducing agent – something that removes oxygen (eg C) In reducing something, the reducing agent itself becomes oxidised (CO) Carbon is a good reducing agent as at high temperatures – it has a strong tendency to react with oxygen.

38. Relative atomic masses

39. Relative Formula Mass If you know the formula of a compound, then you can work out its relative formula masses. Eg Fe 2 O 3 Fe – relative atomic mass = 56 O – relative atomic mass = 16 Therefore relative formula mass of Fe 2 O 3 = 56+56+16+16+16 = 160

40. Electrolysis Some reactive metals hold on to their oxygen too strongly so cannot use carbon as a reducing agent. Use electrolysis Aluminium extracted from bauxite. Electrolysis turns ions back into atoms.

41. Electrolysis – What happens? The electrolyte (liquid for electrolysis) Aluminium forms at negative electrode because is attracted because positive. Oxygen is negative so forms at the positive electrode.

42. Electrolysis- Electrolysis turns ions back into atoms by giving them electrons. Metal ions are positive so attracted to negative electrode The flow of electrons from the power supply into the electrode is what makes it negative In the electrolysis of molten aluminium oxide, the aluminium ions turn into aluminium atoms.

43. Electrolysis Al 3+ + 3e - Al Aluminium electrons supplied Aluminium ion by the negative electrode

44. Electrolysis Non-metal ions are negatively charged so attracted to positive electrode. Electrode is positive because electrons flow out of it to power supply. Negative ions give up electrons to positive electrode and turn into atoms. O 2 - O + 2e - ion atom electrons removed by positive electrode

45. Metal Properties Strong Can be bent and pressed into shape High melting points Conduct electricity

46. Metallic Structures Scientists imagine that the model for metallic structure uses: Tiny spheres Arranged in a regular pattern Packed close together in a crystal as a giant structure.

47. Metallic bonding Metals have a special kind of bonding – not ionic, covalent. Metallic Strong but flexible – allow to move atoms to new positions

48. Metallic Bonding Metal ions tend to lose electrons in their outer shell easily. In solid metal the atoms lose these electrons and become positive ions. The electrons drift freely between the metal ions. The attraction between them holds the structure together.

49. Metallic Bonding A metal crystal is not charged overall. Total negative charge on electrons = total positive charge on ions. Electrons can move freely between the ions – explains why metals conduct electricity well.

50. Life Cycle of Metals Mining – Large volumes waste rock Large holes in ground Explosives – noisy and produces dust Open cast – large volumes red mud.

51. Life Cycle of Metals Processing Ores Many ores high value but low grade Large percentage waste rock

52. Life Cycle of Metals Metal Extraction All stages of metal extraction and fabrication need energy Use large volumes water Give off air pollutants

53. Life Cycle of Metals Metals in Use Lighter cars, trucks and trains mean less fuel consumption and emssions. Less wear and tear on roads and tracks

54. Life Cycles of Metals Recycling Scrap metal from all stages of production routinely recycled. Metal recycled at the end of the usefulness of metal products. Save ores and reducing agents. Save water.