1. 1 Psychology 320: Gender Psychology Lecture 44

2. 2 Reminder The midterm exam will test material associated with Chapters 9, 10, 11, and 12 of the textbook. With respect to Chapter 11, you are responsible for p. 299-316 and 322- 324; p. 317-322 (i.e., achievement) will be discussed in the last quarter of the course and will be tested on the final exam.

3. 3 Education, Careers and Work: 3. Do females and males value similar job characteristics? 2. How do females and males divide occupational and domestic labour? 1. Are there advantages associated with same-sex schooling?

4. 4 Are there advantages associated with same-sex schooling? Given sex discrepancies in school performance and the prevalence of sexual harassment in schools, many researchers, theorists and policy makers advocate for the implementation of single-sex schools. A recent review conducted by the US Department of Education (2005) suggests that single-sex schools (SS) offer some benefits over mixed-sex schools (MS). The primary findings of the review include the following:

5. 5 Outcome VariableFindings of Review General and subject-specific achievement testsSS > MS Meritorious scholarships attainedInsufficient data College GPAInsufficient data College graduation ratesSS = MS Post-secondary test scores (e.g., GRE, MCAT, LSAT)SS = MS Graduate school attendance ratesSS = MS Postgraduate licensure tests scoresInsufficient data Outcomes Variables for Single-Sex vs. Mixed-Sex Schools: Academic Achievement (US Department of Education, 2005)

6. 6 Outcome VariableFindings of Review BullyingInsufficient data DelinquencyMS > SS High school drop outMS > SS Eating disordersSS > MS (females only; no data for males) Teenage pregnancyInsufficient data Self-esteemMS > SS (males only; SS = MS for females) Locus of controlSS > MS Educational and career aspirationsSS > MS Participation in school-related activitiesSS > MS Selection of non-traditional college majorSS > MS (females only; no data for males) Political activismSS > MS (females only; no data for males) Post-secondary unemploymentMS > SS Outcomes Variables for Single-Sex vs. Mixed-Sex Schools: Adaptation and Socioemotional Adjustment (US Department of Education, 2005)

7. 7 Outcome VariableFindings of Review Leadership opportunitiesSS > MS Value placed on leadership and gradesSS > MS Student satisfactionMS > SS (high school), SS > MS (college) Parent satisfactionInsufficient data Teacher satisfactionInsufficient data Outcomes Variables for Single-Sex vs. Mixed-Sex Schools: School Climate or Culture (US Department of Education, 2005)

8. 8 How do females and males divide occupational and domestic labour? Over the past several decades, women’s participation in the paid labour force has increased steadily. Today, women comprise 48% of the Canadian labour force (Statistics Canada, 2010). A relatively large proportion of these women—66%— have young children.

9. 9 Women and Men as a Percentage of Total Employment (Almey, 2006; Statistics Canada, 2010) Percentage of Total Employment

10. 10 Percentage of Women with Children Under the Age of Three Who Are Employed (Almey, 2006) Percentage of Total Employment

11. 11 Although women are more likely to be employed today than in the past, it remains the case that:  females are more likely than males to be employed in part-time positions: 70% of part-time workers are female (Almey, 2006).  females are less likely than males to be employed: 58% of Canadian women are employed; 68% of Canadian men are employed (Almey, 2006).  relatively few males—less than 7%—assume the role of stay-at-home dad or “househusband” (Smith, 2007).

12. 12  females are more likely than males to be employed in teaching, health, clerical/administrative, and sales/service occupations: 67% of employed females work in these occupations; 30% of employed males work in these occupations (Almey, 2006).  females are more likely than males to perform domestic activities (e.g., housework, cooking), irrespective of their employment status:

13. 13 Proportion of Household Labour Wife’s Economic Dependence (-1=High, 1=Low) Proportion of Household Labour Performed as a Function of Sex and Economic Dependence (Greenstein, 2000)

14. 14 Indeed, in households where women are employed, domestic labour is more likely to be divided on the basis of gender than in households where women are not employed (Ortega & Tanaka, 2004). Moreover, “breadwinner” wives do more domestic work than wives who earn salaries similar to their husbands; economically-dependent husbands do less domestic work than husbands who earn salaries similar to their wives. Explanation: Deviance neutralization (Greenstein, 2000).

15. 15 Do females and males value similar job characteristics? A recent meta-analysis (Konrad et al., 2000) indicates that females are more likely than males to value the interpersonal characteristics of their jobs, whereas males are more likely than females to value the status-related characteristics of their jobs.

16. 16 Sex Differences in Preferences for Job Characteristics (Konrad et al., 2000)

17. 17 Consistent with the sex difference that has been found for the value placed on “earnings,” research has shown that females have lower salary expectations than males:

18. 18 FemalesMales Overall Entry pay Peak pay 34,600 64,600 42,900 108,600 Business administration Entry pay Peak pay 36,600 73,000 45,600 129,400 Biology Entry pay Peak pay 49,900 82,600 77,000 179,000 English Entry pay Peak pay 24,800 45,300 25,800 88,400 Psychology Entry pay Peak pay 32,100 60,400 32,600 60,700 Expected Salary by Sex (Heckert et al., 2002)

19. 19 Major and Konar (1984) suggest that four factors account for the lower salary expectations of females in relation to males: 1. Sex differences in the importance of salary: As noted already, females place less value on “earnings” than males. 2. Sex differences in career paths: Females pursue less advanced education, plan to spend fewer years working full-time, and self-select into lower paying occupations than males.

20. 20 4. Sex differences in social comparison standards: Females tend to compare themselves to other females, who are relatively low-earning; males tend to compare themselves to other males, who are relatively high-earning. 3. Sex differences in expected job inputs: Females have lower expectations of their own performance than males and are more likely to devalue their performance than males.

21. 21 Sex Importance of Earnings Pay Expectations Major and Konar’s (1984) Model of Sex Differences in Pay Expectations Career Path Factors Job Input Factors Social Comparison Standards

22. 22 Evidence supports the role of each of these factors in explaining sex differences in salary expectations. However, the strongest predictor of salary expectations is social comparison standards (Heckert et al., 2002): r between expected entry salary and comparison others’ pay:.96 r between expected peak salary and comparison others’ pay:.73

23. 23 Education, Careers and Work: 3. Do females and males value similar job characteristics? 2. How do females and males divide occupational and domestic labour? 1. Are there advantages associated with same-sex schooling?