1. Revision II Stylistics 551 Lecture 32 Neelum Almas

2. Foregrounding Defamiliarization Automatization Deviation Parallelism Tropes Schemes

3. Foregrounding “As a general rule, anyone who wishes to investigate the significance and value of a work of art must concentrate on the element of interest and surprise, rather than on automatic pattern” (Leech, A Linguistic guide to English Poetry: 57)

4. Foregrounding A convincing illustration of the power of foregrounding to suggest latent significance is furnished by modern poets who make use of stylistic devices of transporting pieces of ordinary, non poetic language into poetic context. The Waste Land T.S Eliot The bar-parlor monologue:

5. Interpretation and Foregrounding What is interpretation? Action or process of understanding the meaning and giving explanation to things and ideas which are complex or ambiguous. To understand something. To decide the meaning/purpose of something Gives clarity to ideas, reveals implications and symbolic meaning.

6. Interpretation & Foregrounding What distinguishes literary discourse form ordinary discourse is the symbols, images, literary devices and other embellishments that a writer uses. Our ordinary conversation is quite straightforward that we hardly need to interpret it. But a literary piece makes some demands on part of the reader.

7. Deviation Linguistic Deviation and Linguistic Parallelism Produce the effect of FOREGROUNDING

8. Deviation Deviation occurs when we have a set of rules or expectations which are broken in some way. Like the way this font has just changed. This deviation from expectation produces the effect of foregrounding, which attracts attention and aids memorability.

9. Deviation In most of the instances the deviation will be linguistic. Dylan Thomas wrote a poem which has a title which breaks both of the rules we noticed on the last page, and so is doubly foregrounded - it is grammatically and semantically deviant at the same time. The poem is called 'A Grief Ago', a phrase which also turns up in the poem itself.

10. Deviation A linguistic deviation is a disruption of the normal process of communication: it leaves a gap, as it were, in one’s comprehension of text. The gap can be filled, and the deviation rendered significant. But only if by an effort of imagination the reader perceives some deeper connection which compensates for the superficial oddity. In case of a metaphor this compensation is in the form of an analogy.

11. Elements in Deviation 1. The element of Interest: A deviation first of all evokes the interest of the reader. Since a deviation is unusual use of language and expression it appears appealing as the reader finds it different. 2. The Element of Surprise: The deviations are apparently confusing and seem strange and abnormal as these do not fit into the regular process of communication. As a result the reader feels surprise on encountering such abnormalities in writing. He questions what does it mean? how is it possible? What is its significance?

12. Types of Deviation 1. Lexical Deviation 2. Grammatical Deviation 3. Phonological Deviation 4. Graphological\Othographic Deviation 5. Semantic Deviation 6. Dialectical Deviation 7. Deviation of Register 8. Historical Deviation

13. Parallelism A parallel structure joins together two or more recognizably similar, yet not identical structures, and can, just like deviation or repetition, occur at all levels of language (phonological, syntactic, morphological etc.). It is very frequently used as a rhetorical device, in both literary and non- literary texts, and is common even in everyday speech, e.g. in proverbs, or in jokes:

14. Parallelism as foregrounded Regularity A type of foregrounding which is in a sense opposite of deviation, for it consists in the introduction of extra regularities, not irregularities, into language. To the extent that any use of language consists in obeying rules, regularity or ‘ruledness’ is a property of language in general, both inside and outside poetry.

15. Parallelism The parallelism in “where wealth accumulates and men decay” resides not just in the identity of clause structures (S+V) but in the fact that each element of the clause consists of only one word. If it is “ where wealth accumulates and good men decay” the patter would be considerably weaker because there would no longer be such close grammatical correspondence.

16. Features of Parallelism Identity and contrast Roman Jakobson: “Any form of parallelism is an apportionment of invariants and variable” In other words in any parallelistic pattern there must be an element of identity and contras.

17. Functions of parallelism: 1. Connected with rhetorical emphasis 2. Aids memorability 3. Connects the elements of identity and contrast 4. Leads towards climax

18. Kinds of Parallelism 1.Synonymous Parallelism (use of repetition e.g. anaphora) 2. Antithetical Parallelism (use of antithesis) 3. Synthetic Parallelism (advance the thought) 4. Introverted Parallelism (reverses the thought) 5. Stair like Parallelism (building up of thought upon thought) 6. Emblematic Parallelism (use of simile)

19. Schemes and Topes Schemes: Repetitions :Repetition can be of two types: 1. Repetition of Sounds: i) alliteration ii) assonance iii) consonance 2. Repetition of Words : i) anaphora (a…) (a…) ii) apanalepsis (a…a) (b…b) iii) epistrophe (…a) (…a) iv) symploce (a…b) (a…b)

20. Foregrounding Parallelism Schemes (form/shape) Figures involving repetition Eg. Alliteration, anaphora Deviation Tropes (turn/change) Figures involving semantic irregularities Eg. Pun, metaphor

21. Tropes Kinds of Tropes: 1. Figures involving semantic irregularities: paradox, antithesis, oxymoron 2. Figures involving comparison: Metaphor, Simile, Personification, Conceit 3. Figures involving substitution: Metonymy, Synecdoche 4. Figures involving addition or amplification: Hyperbole, Litotes