2. Stable Isotopes of Geological Interest

3. Oxygen Isotopes

5. Oxygen Isotope Variations

6. Fractionation of Oxygen Isotopes

12. Measurement of Oxygen Isotopes Analysis of oxygen isotopes in silicates and oxides usually involves the liberation of oxygen through fluorination with ClF 3 or BrF 5 followed by reduction of the oxygen gas to CO 2 at high- temperatures for measurement in a mass spectrometer. This method was first developed by Clayton and Mayeda (1963) using BrF 5 and modified by Borthwick and Harmon (1982) for use with ClF 3. This can be done using a conventional silicate line using Ni- reaction vessels, a laser line both of which need a fluorination agent or an ion-probe which doesn’t. Analysis is normally done on a dual-inlet gas source mass spectrometer.

13. Mass Spectrometry

14. Measurement of Oxygen Isotopes Low reaction yields can lead to fractionation of the oxygen isotopes and is a serious problem for analysis of refractory minerals such as olivine and garnet. In addition, conventional analysis on a silicate extraction line is not capable of analysing small samples in-situ and means that natural sample heterogeneity cannot be detected. These problems have to some extent been overcome with the development of laser-fluorination lines first described by Sharp (1990) More recently, the ion-probe has been used to determin oxygen isotope ratios at the sub-grain scale in zircons and other refractory minerals and has been pivotal in furthering our understanding of the development of the early Earth atmosphere.

15. Measurement of Oxygen Isotopes

19. Hydrogen Isotopes

20. Hydrogen Isotope Variations

21. Fractionation of Hydrogen Isotopes

25. Measurement of Hydrogen Isotopes

28. Carbon Isotopes

29. Carbon Isotope Variation

30. Carbon Isotope Fractionation

34. Measurement of Carbon Isotopes

35. Stable Isotope Standards

39. Sulphur Isotopes

41. Sulphur Isotope Variations

43. Sulphur Isotope Fractionation

45. Measurement of Sulphur Isotopes

47. Nitrogen Isotopes

49. Nitrogen Isotope Variations

50. Nitrogen Isotope Fractionation

53. Measurement of Nitrogen Isotopes