1. Introduction to Earth & Environmental Science

2. What is Earth Science? Earth Science  The name for the group of sciences that deals with Earth and its neighbors in space.

3. Branches of Earth Science A.Astronomy  Study of objects past the atmosphere  Ex: Stars, moon, comets B. Meteorology  Study of the atmosphere  Processes of weather and climate  Ex: clouds, rain, hurricanes C. Geology  Study of materials that make-up the Earth  Processes that form and change those materials  Ex: rocks, minerals, earthquakes, volcanoes D. Oceanography  Study of the oceans  Ex: trenches, marine animals

4. Earth’s Major Spheres/Systems A. Hydrosphere  All water on Earth  Oceans, rivers, streams, lakes & seas  97% of the water is salt water  3% of water is freshwater B. Atmosphere  Gaseous layers above the surface of Earth  Weather and Climate on Earth  Makes life possible on Earth

5. C. Geosphere/Lithosphere  Beneath both the Hydrosphere and Atmosphere  Three Parts  Core  Mantle  Crust D. Biosphere  All organisms on Earth  Environments where organisms live

6. What is Environmental Science?  The study of how humans use resources and the affect it has on the Earth

7. What Environmental Science deals with?  Renewable Resources  Plants, animals, water, wind  Nonrenewable Resources  Coal, oil, natural gas  Population Growth  Environmental Problems  Pollution, global warming  Natural Hazards  Flooding, droughts, earthquakes

8. Map Projections and Types

9. Cartography  The art and science of making maps, including data compilation, layout, and design.  Also concerned with the interpretation of mapped patterns. A stone tablet found in a cave in Abauntz in the Navarra region of northern Spain is believed to contain the earliest known representation of a landscape.

10. Maps  Visual representation of the earth’s surface or the phenomenon (any observable occurrence) that occur on the earth’s surface.

11. Map Scale  The degree to which a map “zooms in” on the area it is representing.  Scale tells you what extent the portion of the earth represented on the map has been reduced from its original size to fit on the map.

12.  For example, 1 inch on a map may equal 10 miles in the real world.  That scale might be written as 1 inch = 10 miles.  Sometimes, scale is indicated as a fraction.  “1/10 miles” or “1:10 miles” means 1 inch on the map equals 10 miles in the real world.

13. THIS IS THE TRICKY PART  Counterintuitive part of mapping: “LARGE” OR “SMALL” scale.  The more “zoomed in” the map is on an area, the larger is its map scale.  large-scale map depicts a smaller area  The less “zoomed in” the map is on an area, the smaller is its scale.  Small-scale map depicts a larger area

16. Map Projections

17. How is the Earth divided?  Equator, 0˚latitude, divides Earth into northern and southern hemispheres  Prime Meridian, 0˚longitude, passes through Greenwich, England divide the Earth into western and eastern hemispheres

18. Determining Locations  Global Grids  Latitude  distance north or south of the equator (east and west circles around the globe)  Longitude  distance east or west of the prime meridian (run north or south on a globe)

19. Using Latitude and Longitude 1. Lat: ____ Long: _____ 2. Lat: ____ Long: _____ 3. Lat: ____ Long: _____

20. Earth is ROUND !

21. So?  Transforming something spherical into something flat means that the 2-D image will never exactly represent what is visible in three-dimensions.  Geographers use numerous mathematical equations to produce map projections.

22.  All flat maps have some distortion in their representation of:  Distance  Shape  Area  Or direction.

23. Types of Projections  Equal-area (or equivalent) projections: maps that maintain area but distort other properties.  Conformal (or orthomorphic) projections: maps that maintain shape but distort other properties (it is impossible to have a projection that is both conformal and equal area).  Azimuthal projections: maps that maintain direction but distort other properties.  Equidistant projections: maps that maintain distance but distort other properties.

24. Mercator Projection  Cylindrical map projection  Useful for navigation because it maintains accurate direction  Famous for their distortion in area that makes landmasses at the poles appear oversized

25. Mercator Projection

26. Peters Projection  Cylindrical map projection  Attempts to retain all the accurate sizes of all the world’s landmasses  Sometimes used as a political statement- that we should refocus our attention to the tropics, home to large landmasses and many of the world’s poorest countries.

27. Peters Projection

28. Fuller Projection  Maintains the accurate size and shape of landmasses  Completely rearranges direction such that the four cardinal directions (north, south, east, and west) no longer have any meaning.

29. Fuller Projection

30. Robinson Projection  Attempts to balance several possible projection errors.  Does not maintain completely accurate area, shape, distance, or direction, but it minimizes errors in each.  Used by National Geographic

31. Robinson Projection

32. Azimuthal Projection  Planar  Formed when a flat piece of paper is placed on top of the globe and, as described earlier, a light source projects the surrounding areas onto the map.  Either the North Pole or South Pole is oriented at the center of the map which gives the viewer the impression of looking up or down at the earth.

33. Azimuthal Projection

34. Map Types

35. Reference Map  Show locations of places and geographic features.

36. Contour Maps (Isopleths)  Isolines- Lines on a map depicting areas of same or like values.  Contour maps use isolines, or contour lines, to depict where the same elevation exists.  The contour interval of a contour map is the difference in elevation between successive contour lines.

37. Contour Maps

38. GIS map  A geographic information system (GIS) integrates hardware, software, and data for capturing, managing, analyzing, and displaying all forms of geographically referenced information.  GIS allows us to view, understand, question, interpret, and visualize data in many ways that reveal relationships, patterns, and trends in the form of maps, globes, reports, and charts.

39. GIS map

40. GIS Map

41. Introduction to Topographic Maps

42. Topographic Maps Two dimensional model of the Earth’s surface (represents 3-D world) Topographic maps are also known as contour maps. Show elevation above sea level using contour lines.

46. Contour Map “Real World”

47. Topographic Maps Contour LineContour Line – - line on a map that connects points of EQUAL elevation. - show elevation and shape of the land Relief – Difference between high and low elevations

49. Topographic Maps Contour IntervalContour Interval – difference in elevation between each line. MUST be equal spacing. Contour interval = 20 feet 520 540 560 580

50. Topographic Maps Index Contour – Usually every 5 th line is printed darker and has an elevation printed on it.

52. Rules for Contours 1.Contour lines never cross

53. Rules for Contours 2. Contours form closed loops (even if not shown of the map.

54. Rules for Contours 3. Contours bend upstream (uphill) when crossing a stream.

56. Rules for Contours 4.The maximum possible elevation for a hill is “1” less than what the next contour “should” be. The highest possible elevation of the hill is just below the value of the next line that is not shown 50 60 70 80 90

57. 239 399 179

58. Closely Spaced Contours Steeper Slope (Gradient) – contour lines are closer together.

60. Wide Spaced Contours Gradual/Gentle Slope (Gradient) – contour lines are farther apart.

62. A B

63. Depressions Contour lines which show a depression, crater, or sinkhole on a map. Shown by dashed lines (hachure marks) on the inside of a contour line The elevation of the first depression contour is the same as the lowest regular contour near it.

64. Rules for Contours The lowest possible elevation for a depression is “1” more than what the next contour “should” be. The lowest possible elevation of a depression is just above the value of the next line that is not shown 50 90 80 70 60 51

65. 100 50

66. Benchmarks a location whose exact elevation is known and is noted on a brass or aluminum plate. bench marks are shown on maps by an X with the letters BM written next to them.

68. Map Scales Indicates the distance on the map compared to distance in the real world Graphical - by a line divided into equal parts and marked in units of length.

69. Map Scales Numerically – usually by writing a fraction to show what part of the true distances map distances really are. 1:63,360 One inch on the map equals 63,360 Inches in the real world. (There are 63,360 inches in a mile)

70. Gradient The slope between any two points on a hill Gradient = Change in Field Value Distance

71. Gradient A trail is four miles long as measured by the scale on a map. The beginning of the trail is at the 1,060 ft contour line and the end of the trail is at the 960 ft contour line. Calculate the gradient of the trail. Gradient = = 1060 ft – 960 ft 4 miles 25.0 ft/mi

72. Gradient 200 Contour Interval = 20 ft 0246810 miles

73. How to Make a Topographic Profile This represents a very simple topographic map of a hill. The hill is steep on the left side (the contour lines are very close together) and has a gentle slope on the right side. The numbers represent the elevation of the contour lines. (*) 100 200 300 400 What would the hill look like if you were to slice it from left to right? (*)

74. How to Make a Topographic Profile Again, think of the cardboard analogy. Every layer of cardboard would represent 100 feet of elevation (the same as a contour line). You would have 4 layers of cardboard. Viewed from the side it would look like this (*) 100 200 300 400 Each layer of the hill has a different piece of cardboard. To determine the size, draw lines from the hill down to the appropriate layer of cardboard. (*) 500 feet 400 feet 300 feet 200 feet 100 feet Thus, you have a somewhat blocky profile of what the hill looks like. (*)

75. How to Make a Topographic Profile 100 200 300 400 500 feet 400 feet 300 feet 200 feet 100 feet Normally, the Earth’s surface is not this blocky. In a topographic profile a line is drawn from these points (red dots) producing a smooth transition. (*) Thus you have a topographic profile. This is what the hill would look like if you were to cut it along the profile line and look at it from the side. (*)

76. Now it’s your turn. (*) A B This is the profile line – from A to B. Where this black line crosses the INDEX CONTOURS (you do not have to do every contour line) draw a line down to the appropriate contour elevation (layers) below. (*)

77. 6400 The contour interval of this map is 40 feet. Every index contour would then be 200 feet. 8000 7000 7600 7400 7200 7800 6800 6600 Find this page in your Topo Worksheet Packet

78. A B 6400 The contour interval of this map is 40 feet. Every index contour would then be 200 feet. 8000 7000 7600 7400 7200 7800 6800 6600 In this region the profile line cut across the 7800 foot line 4 times. (*) The last step is to simply connect the “dots”. (*) The profile is finished. (*)

79. A B 6400 The contour interval of this map is 40 feet. Every index contour would then be 200 feet. 8000 7000 7600 7400 7200 7800 6800 6600 This is a very classic example of a butte with steep sides and a very flat top. The profile that you see here is an exaggerated scale – the vertical scale is greater than the horizontal scale. The next example is where the vertical scale is closer to the horizontal scale. (*)

80. A B In this example the butte is still the same horizontal distance, but the vertical scale has been compressed. If the vertical scale was bigger it would produce more exaggeration. (*) These are just different representations of the same butte. On the test, the profile that you will be asked to draw will be simpler than this one. (*)

81. THE GRAND CANYON, ARIZONA This view of the Grand Canyon is from the South Rim looking north into Bright Angel Canyon. This is what it looks like on a topographic map. (*)

82. THE GRAND CANYON, ARIZONA This view of the Grand Canyon is from the South Rim looking north into Bright Angel Canyon. This is what it looks like on a topographic map. (*) It may not be as majestic but it is full of information. (*)

83. Cumberland, Pennsylvania/Maryland Based on the slope information provided by the brown contour lines, the tributaries flow down fairly steep slopes (the contour lines are close together) making them YOUTHFUL streams. The main stream occupies a valley that has very few contour lines. In fact the wide spacing of these contour lines represents a floodplain – placing this river in the MATURE stage. (*) Just for fun, let’s construct a topographic profile across the main stream from point A to point B. (*)AB Try to visualize what this profile would look like before you move on. (*)

84. Cumberland, Pennsylvania/MarylandA B Using every INDEX CONTOUR – 100 foot interval … (*) 1100 1000 900 800 700 600 Print this page if you want to draw the profile. The next slide goes through the process. READY ? (*)

85. Cumberland, Pennsylvania/MarylandA B Using every INDEX CONTOUR – 100 foot interval … (*) 1100 1000 900 800 700 600 Stream Now just connect the dots and draw a smooth profile. The stream occupies the lowest point of the valley. (*)

86. Scientific Method /Experimental Design An organized plan for gathering, organizing and communication of information GOAL –Solve a problem –Better understand something

87. Experimental Design 1)Problem/Question What do you want to know? 2)Research 3)Hypothesis 4)Experiment –Test your hypothesis 5)Collect and Analyze Data 6)Conclusion –Accept, reject, or modify the hypothesis

88. Evolution of a Scientific Idea 1.Hypothesis  An educated guess 2. Theory  Extensively tested hypothesis  Can be modified with new data  Still can be proven wrong 3. Scientific Law  Generalized rule to explain observations  Summarizes a pattern in nature  Ex: Law of Gravity

89. 89

90. Parts of an Experiment Variable –Factor that changes –Two types Independent variable Dependent variable Independent Variable –Fact YOU change –AKA: Manipulated Variable Dependent Variable –Factor that changes BECAUSE you changed something –AKA: Responding Variable

91. Constant –Factors that never are changed from test to test Trial –Repeating the experiment –3 times for best result

92. Experimental Design Practices Asking Questions and Defining Problems Developing and Using Models Planning and Carrying Out Investigations Analyzing and Interpreting Data Using Mathematics and Computational Thinking Constructing Explanations and Designing Solutions Engaging in Argument from Evidence Obtaining, Evaluating, and Communicating Information

93. Measurement Types LENGTH  Straight line distance between two points  How long something is  SI unit = meters (m)  Tools for finding  Meter stick or ruler

94. Temperature  Amount of heat given off by an object  Molecular Motion  How hot or cold something is  SI unit = Kelvin (K)  ºC, ºF  Tools for finding  Thermometer

95. MASS  How much Matter is in an object  SI unit: kilogram (kg)  Tools for Finding  Balances or scales Note:  Mass and Weight are two different things  Mass never changes from place to place

96. VOLUME  Amount of Space an object takes up  Units: L, mL, cm 3  Tools: graduated cylinder or ruler  Three Different Methods for finding Volume  Regular object  Irregular object  Liquid

97. Finding Volume 1.Liquids (water)  Place the liquid in a graduated cylinder and read the level 2.Regular Object (block) o L * W * H 3.Irregular Object (rock)  Do Water Displacement  Subtract water level without object from water level with object

98. Density  Mass per unit Volume  Unit: g/mL or g/cm 3  Formula  Density = mass ÷ volume  Density of water is 1 g/mL  Less means float  More means sink