1. Social Research Methods
Alan Bryman
Social Research Methods
Chapter 13: Content analysis
Slides authored by Tom Owens

2. What is content analysis?
Approach to analysis of documents and texts
Quantifies content in terms of predetermined categories
Systematic and reliable
Usually a quantitative research strategy
Different from semiotics and ethnographic content analysis
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3. Definitions of content analysis
Objective, systematic and quantitative description of the manifest content of communication (Berelson, 1952)
Focus on mass media communications
Objective, systematic identification of specified characteristics of messages (Holsti, 1969)
Includes latent content
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4. Research questions Must be clearly specified before analysis
Decide which dimensions of texts to quantify
e.g. news coverage of an issue: who, what, how much, where and why?
How many different views represented?
What is selected for inclusion?
Omissions: what is not reported?
Does the amount of coverage change over time?
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5. Selecting a sample
If working with the mass media (most likely case), two dimensions are possible for random sampling:
The media itself
Dates of publication

6. Sampling media Progressive narrowing down Which types of text?
Printed or visual data? Documents? Mass media?
If mass media, which kind?
TV, radio, newspapers, magazines…
more than one type?
For each type of text, which examples?
e.g. tabloid or broadsheet newspapers
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7. Sampling dates
Starting dates may be predetermined by an historical event (like the terrorist attack on the World Trade Centre on 11 September 2001)
More open if the study is an ongoing, general phenomenon
End dates can be a matter of judgement
So, stick to the principles of probability sampling (as outlined in Chapter 8)
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8. What is to be counted?
Significant actors: protagonists and alternative voices
Words: frequency of words or phrases (e.g. ‘hooligan’ or ‘non-smoker’), using computer software for analysis (e.g. Wordsmith)
Subjects and themes
Dispositions: values, bias and ideology
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9. The coding schedule
A tabular form onto which coded data will be entered
Each column represents a dimension to be analysed
Each row represents a unit of analysis (item of text)
Codes are written into blank cells in table
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10. Example of a coding schedule
Figure 13.1
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11. The coding manual A set of instructions for coders
Lists all possible categories for each dimension
Shows which codes/numbers refer to which category
Gives guidance on how to decide on a code
Explains what to do if more than one code applies
May use an existing content analysis dictionary as a starting point.
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12. Portions of a coding manual
From Figure 13.2
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13. Avoiding potential pitfalls
Ensure that coding scheme has:
discrete dimensions
mutually exclusive categories
exhaustive categories
clear instructions to coders
a clearly specified unit of analysis (distinction between the media and the event reported)
Pilot the study to make sure of consistency between coders (inter-coder reliability) and consitency over time for each coder (intra-coder reliability)
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14. Advantages of content analysis
Transparency
Ease of longitudinal analysis
Unobtrusiveness
Flexibility
Ease of access
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15. Disadvantages of content analysis
Questions of authenticity, credibility and representativeness of documents
Interpretation by coders
Invalid inference of manifest content
Inability to answer `why?’ questions
Has an atheoretical approach
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