1. What if Everyone Did It? Geoff Huston APNIC Labs

2. DNSSEC and DNS Security Setting the AD bit in a recursive resolver response when successful DNSSEC validation has taken place seems like a rather unimpressive (and tamper-prone) way of conveying a positive security outcome from the resolver to the client Likewise, signaling SERVFAIL seems like a rather poor way of conveying a failed security outcome Various approaches to securing the channel between the client and the recursive resolver have been suggested, but in a simple lightweight UDP transaction model this is a challenge Perhaps it would be preferable for every end device to perform DNSSEC validation directly Which is fine, but will this approach scale?

3. How we measure DNSSEC We’ve been measuring the extent of support for DNSSEC validation in the Internet for the past 12 months We use online ads that perform 1x1 pixel “blot” tests –The DNS names for these test URLs are unique for each instance of a delivered ad (to prevent cache intervention) and they are variously DNSSEC signed (and badly signed): GET image.time.unique-label.example.com/1x1.png –The experimental environment hosts both the DNS authoritative servers for the DNS names and the Web servers for the blot. –We infer client-side capabilities relating to the use of DNSSEC validating resolvers through interpretation of the DNS and HTTP transactions recorded at the DNS and Web servers from three related blot behaviours (no DNSSEC, validly signed DNSSEC, badly-signed DNSSEC) 3

4. Types of DNSSEC-Outcomes AS a result of the test, a client can be classified as: “No DNSSEC” –The visible resolvers only ask for A (and AAAA) RRs for the named objects “Validating DNSSEC” –The visible resolvers ask for A, DNSKEY and DS RRs for the named objects and the associated zone and key signing keys –The clients fetch a validly signed object and do not fetch a badly-signed object “Mixed DNSSEC” –The clients appear to be using a mix of DNSSEC-validating and non-validating resolvers, as they fetch both the validly signed object and the badly-signed object” (these clients appear to interpret SERVFAIL literally!) 4

5. DNSSEC today: 12% of the Internet exclusively use DNS resolvers that perform DNSSEC validation

6. What if everyone did it? What if: every resolver performed DNSSEC validation? or even if: every end device performed DNSSEC validation? What difference in traffic loads and query rates would we see at an authoritative name server between serving an unsigned domain name and serving the signed equivalent of the domain name?

7. If your resolver validates DNS responses… Then the resolver will need to fetch the DNSKEY and DS RRs for the zone, and recurse upward to the root If the RRs associated with the terminal zone are not cached, then at a minimum there are at least two additional DNS queries that are performed as part of the validation process

8. If your resolver validates DNS responses… More queries, longer resolution time Dual Stack client - query for unsigned domain name 20:36:40.288 query: unsigned.example.com IN AAAA -ED (199.102.79.186) 20:36:41.028 query: unsigned.example.com IN A -ED (199.102.79.186) Dual Stack client - query for signed domain name 20:36:41.749 query: signed.example.com IN A -ED (199.102.79.186) 20:36:41.758 query: signed.example.com IN AAAA -ED (199.102.79.186) 20:36:41.876 query: signed.example.com IN DS -ED (199.102.79.186) 20:36:41.993 query: signed.example.com IN DNSKEY -ED (199.102.79.186)

9. Validation – DNS Queries DNS queries Validation Queries

10. Measured Time Cost Distribution of elapsed time difference, measured at the server, from the first DNS query until the WEB object fetch. There are three types of clients: those who validate, those who do not validate, and those who use a mix of validating and non- validating resolvers

11. Measured Time Cost Distribution of elapsed time difference, measured at the server, from the first DNS query until the WEB object fetch. There are three types of clients: those who validate, those who do not validate, and those who use a mix of validating and non- validating resolvers

12. Time Cost Cumulative distribution of elapsed time difference, measured at the server, from the first DNS query until the WEB object fetch

13. DNS Resolution Time This measures just the DNS resolution part, collecting the elapsed time between the first and last queries for a domain name

14. Unsigned/Non-Validating vs Signed/Validating Let’s try a slightly different comparison, and compare the total DNS query time between –Non-validating users querying an unsigned name and –Validating users querying for a signed name

15. Like-vs-like: unsigned vs signed

16. 25% of users cannot resolve a simple uncached unsigned domain name within a single query 25% of DNSSEC- validating users cannot resolve a signed name within ½ second

17. Validation Time When resolving a previously unseen domain name most clients will experience up to 500ms additional time spent in validation –This is due to the additional queries related to the fetch of the DNSKEY / DS RR sequence to validate the RRSIG of the original response This validation phase could be processed in less time… Most resolvers appear to perform the validation path check using serial fetches. Parallel fetches of the DNSSEC validation path RRs would improve this situation so that the validation fetches would take a single query cycle time

18. Do any clients drop out? Does the addition of the DNSSEC RR’s in the response cause any clients to stop attempts at DNS resolution? So we looked…

19. Do any clients drop out? If there was any clear evidence of DNSSEC causing resolution failure then the blue line would be clearly higher than the other three control lines But its not. There is no experimental evidence to suggest systematic resolution failure here for DNSSEC-signed names However, the DNS responses in this experiment were all below 1500 octets. We have yet to test the case of forced UDP fragmentation in DNS responses

20. Caching and Resolver Clustering 20 75% of end clients have their queries forwarded via 1% of visible resolvers

21. Client Behaviour Retrieving DNSSEC credentials takes additional time and volume when validating the resolution outcomes of a signed name But much of this overhead is mitigated by the extraordinary level of aggregation within DNS forwarder paths, increasing the effectiveness of DNS caching And if resolvers performed validation using parallel fetches, the additional overhead could be brought down to a single retrieval cycle time

22. Authoritative Server Measurements The following analysis attempts to answer the question: –What increase in queries and traffic should I expect to see if the unsigned zone I currently serve is DNSSEC signed, and everyone is using DNSSEC validating resolvers?

23. Server Traffic Load 23

24. If you serve a signed Domain Name: You will generate larger responses: Dual Stack client - query for unsigned domain name, no EDNS0 Query: 117 Bytes Response: 168 bytes Dual Stack client - query for signed domain name, EDNS0 Query: (A) 127 Bytes Response: (A) 1168 bytes Query: (DS) 80 Bytes Response: (DS) 341 bytes Query: (DNSKEY) 80 Bytes Response: (DNSKEY) 742 bytes Total: Query: 287 bytes Response: 2,251 bytes

25. If you serve a signed Domain Name: You will generate larger responses: Dual Stack client - query for unsigned domain name, no EDNS0 Query: 117 Bytes Response: 168 bytes Dual Stack client - query for signed domain name, EDNS0 Query: (A) 127 Bytes Response: (A) 1168 bytes Query: (DS) 80 Bytes Response: (DS) 341 bytes Query: (DNSKEY) 80 Bytes Response: (DNSKEY) 742 bytes Total: Query: 287 bytes Response: 2,251 bytes The DS query is directed to the parent zone, so you may or may not see this query at the authoritative server. In our case we are serving the parent zone as well

26. If you serve a signed Domain Name: You will generate larger responses: Dual Stack client - query for unsigned domain name, no EDNS0 Query: 117 Bytes Response: 168 bytes Dual Stack client - query for signed domain name, EDNS0 Query: (A) 127 Bytes Response: (A) 1168 bytes Query: (DS) 80 Bytes Response: (DS) 341 bytes Query: (DNSKEY) 80 Bytes Response: (DNSKEY) 742 bytes Total: Query: 287 bytes Response: 2,251 bytes That’s an increase of 13x in terms of outbound traffic volume

27. Server Traffic Load This represents the 5 minute relative traffic load between serving an unsigned control domain and serving a validly signed domain. The originating query rates are the same

28. Server Traffic Load Serving a DNSSEC-signed name is observed to generate 7.5x the traffic load, as compared to serving an unsigned name

29. Server Traffic Load Serving a DNSSEC-signed name is observer to generate 7.5x the traffic load, as compared to serving an unsigned name But 20% of clients are performing validation, and hence 20% of the clients generate 13x more traffic, i.e. the theory says that we should be observing 3.4x the traffic load Where is the additional traffic?

30. Server Traffic Load Use of the EDNS DNSSEC-OK flag is far higher than the level of DNSSEC validation –84% of queries have the EDNS0 DNSSEC-OK flag set –And this query generates a response of 1168 bytes (i.e. 7x the size of a null EDNS response) –So 64% of clients set EDNS0 DNSSEC-OK, and 20% of clients also ask for DS and DNSKEY RRs –The theory predicts that this would result in 7.25x the traffic over an unsigned domain –Which is (roughly) what we see –Phew!

31. Server Traffic Load What is the traffic load difference between serving an unsigned zone and serving a signed zone if every client performed DNSSEC validation? The difference from the current levels of DNSSEC traffic lies predominately in the additional DNSKEY and DS responses You should expect approximately 15x the traffic load for response traffic

32. Server Query Load 32

33. If you serve a signed Domain Name: You’ll receive 2-3 times as many queries: Dual Stack client - query for unsigned domain name, no EDNS0 Query: 117 Bytes Response: 168 bytes Dual Stack client - query for signed domain name, EDNS0 Query: (A) 127 Bytes Response: (A) 1168 bytes Query: (DS) 80 Bytes Response: (DS) 341 bytes Query: (DNSKEY) 80 Bytes Response: (DNSKEY) 742 bytes The DS query is directed to the parent zone, so you may or may not see this query at the authoritative server. In our case we are serving the parent zone as well

34. Server Query Load

35. 20% of clients use validating resolvers, so the signed domain query load should be 1.4x that of the unsigned domain But we are observing an increase in the query load of 1.6x the unsigned domain. Why?

36. Repeat queries are rising Queries per domain name

37. Query duplication We are seeing a noticeable level of query duplication from anycast DNS server farms The same query is being received from multiple slave resolvers within a short period of time This is rising over time Domain Time Query source Query 0a62f.z.example.com 02:05:31.998 74.125.41.81 port: 52065 q: DNSKEY? 0a62f.z.example.com 02:05:32.000 74.125.41.19 port: 53887 q: DNSKEY? 0a62f.z.example.com 02:05:32.005 74.125.41.146 port: 52189 q: DNSKEY? 0a62f.z.example.com 02:05:32.008 74.125.16.213 port: 42079 q: DNSKEY?

38. Setting Expectations For a validly signed zone an authoritative server may anticipate about 4x the query load and 15x the traffic load as compared to serving an equivalent unsigned zone, if everyone performed DNSSEC validation * (* if you served the parent zone as well)

39. The Worst Case 39

40. The Worst Case But things get worse when the DNSSEC signatures are invalid: –The response from a DNSSEC-validating recursive resolver upon DNSSEC validation failure is SERVFAIL, which prompts clients of this resolver to re-query using an alternative resolver –The recursive resolver may re-query the name using alternative servers, on the assumption that the validation failure is due to a secondary server falling out of sync with the current zone data How much worse does it get?

41. DNS Resolution Time Difference In this case we look at clients who use a mixed set of resolvers, and fail over from a validating resolver to a non- validating resolver, and measure the time from first DNS query to Web fetch

42. DNS Resolution Time Difference In this case we look at clients who use a mixed set of resolvers, and fail over from a validating resolver to a non- validating resolver, and measure the time from first DNS query to Web fetch

43. DNS Resolution Times 25% of DNSSEC-validating clients continue DNS resolution attempts for more than 6 seconds with a badly signed DNS name

44. Relative Traffic Profile

45. Traffic Profile The traffic load for a badly signed domain name is around 10x the load for an unsigned domain If everyone were to use validating resolvers then the load profile would rise to around 26x the load of an unsigned domain

46. Query Profile

47. The query load for a badly signed domain name is around 2.5x the load for an unsigned domain If everyone were to use validating resolvers then the load profile would rise to around 4x the load of an unsigned domain

48. Badly Signed Names The problem with a badly signed name is the lack of caching – when a name does not validate, a validating resolver should not cache the resolution outcomes In this case all resolution attempts from validating resolvers generate queries at the authoritative name servers And the use of a rather cryptic “ServFail” response prompts some recursive resolvers to query all nameservers The resultant query load on the authoritative name servers is far higher than these measurements would suggest

49. Badly Signed Names Edge DeviceResolvers Authoritative Name Servers

50. Setting Expectations for DNSSEC For a validly signed zone an authoritative server may anticipate about 4x the query load and 15x the traffic load as compared to serving an equivalent unsigned zone, if everyone performed DNSSEC validation * But if you serve a badly signed zone, expect >>8x the query load and around >>26x the traffic load * (* if you served the parent zone as well)

51. Thank You Questions?