1. Chapter 6 Concurrency: Deadlock and Starvation

2. Deadlock
Permanent blocking of a set of processes that either compete for system resources or communicate with each other
Involves conflicting needs for resources by two or more processes
There is no satisfactory solution in the general case

3. Example where deadlock can occur

4. Example where deadlock cannot occur

5. The Conditions for Deadlock
These 3 conditions of policy must be present for a deadlock to be possible:
1: Mutual exclusion
only one process may use a resource at a time
2: Hold-and-wait
a process may hold allocated resources while awaiting assignment of others
3: No preemption
no resource can be forcibly removed from a process holding it

6. The Conditions for Deadlock
We also need the occurrence of a particular sequence of events that result in:
4: Circular wait
a closed chain of processes exists, such that each process holds at least one resource needed by the next process in the chain

7. The Conditions for Deadlock
The first 3 conditions are necessary, but not sufficient
Deadlock occurs if and only if the circular wait condition is unresolvable.
The circular wait condition is unresolvable when the first 3 policy conditions hold
Thus the 4 conditions taken together constitute necessary and sufficient conditions for deadlock

8. Methods for handling deadlocks
Deadlock prevention
disallow 1 of the 4 conditions of deadlock occurrence
Deadlock avoidance
do not grant a resource request if this allocation might lead to deadlock
Deadlock detection
always grant resource request when possible. But periodically check for the presence of deadlock and then recover from it

9. Deadlock Prevention
The OS is design in such a way as to exclude a priori the possibility of deadlock
Indirect methods of deadlock prevention:
to disallow one of the 3 policy conditions
Direct methods of deadlock prevention:
to prevent the occurrence of circular wait

10. Indirect methods of deadlock prevention
Mutual Exclusion
cannot be disallowed
ex: only 1 process at a time can print to a printer

11. Indirect methods of deadlock prevention
Hold-and-Wait
can be disallowed by requiring that a process request all its required resources at one time
block the process until all requests can be granted simultaneously
A process may be held up for a long time waiting for all its requests
an application would need to be aware of all the resources that will be needed

12. Indirect methods of deadlock prevention
No preemption
Can be prevented in several ways:
Process making a resource request must release its original resources if the request is denied
If the requested resource is held by another process, it may be preempted to release it
But whenever a process must release a resource whose usage is in progress, the state of this resource must be saved for later resumption.
Hence: practical only when the state of a resource can be easily saved and restored later, such as the processor.

13. Direct methods of deadlock prevention
A protocol to prevent circular wait:
define a strictly increasing linear ordering O() for resource types. Ex:
R1: tape drives: O(R1) = 2
R2: disk drives: O(R2) = 4
R3: printers: O(R3) = 7
Assume a process has been allocated resources of type Ri
After that, the process can request resources of type Rj if and only if O(Rj) > O(Ri)

14. Prevention of circular wait
Circular wait cannot hold under this protocol.
Proof: suppose processes P1 and P2 are deadlocked because
P1 has control of Ri and requested Rj and
P2 has control of Rj and requested Ri
This is impossible because it implies O(Ri) < O(Rj) and O(Rj) < O(Ri)
Inefficient: may deny resources unnecessarily because of ordering imposed on requests

15. Deadlock Prevention: Summary
We disallow one of the 3 policy conditions or use a protocol that prevents circular wait
This leads to inefficient use of resources and slowing down of processes

16. Deadlock Avoidance
We allow the 3 policy conditions but make judicious choices to assure that the deadlock point is never reached
Allows more concurrency than prevention
Two approaches:
do not start a process if its demand might lead to deadlock
do not grant an incremental resource request if this allocation might lead to deadlock
In both cases: maximum requirements of each resource must be stated in advance

17. Resource types
Resources in a system are partitioned into resources types
Each resource type in a system exists with a certain amount. Let R(i) be the total amount of resource type i present in the system. Ex:
R(main memory) = 128 MB
R(disk drives) = 8
R(printers) = 5
The partition is system specific (ex: printers may be further partitioned...)

18. Process initiation denial
Let C(k,i) be the amount of resource type i claimed by process k.
C(k,i) is the maximum value of resource type i permitted for process k.
Let U(i) be the total amount of resource type i unclaimed in the system running n processes:
U(i) = R(i) – SUM[C(1:n,i)]
New process is not started if its resource requirements might lead to deadlock
New process started only if
U(i) >= C(n+1,i) for all i
Far from optimal because it assumes the worst: all processes make their maximum claims together

19. Resource Allocation Denial
Referred to as the banker’s algorithm
State of the system is the current allocation of resources to process
Safe state is where there is at least one sequence that does not result in deadlock
Unsafe state is a state that is not safe

20. Determination of a Safe State Initial State

21. Determination of a Safe State P2 Runs to Completion

22. Determination of a Safe State P1 Runs to Completion

23. Determination of a Safe State P3 Runs to Completion

24. Determination of an Unsafe State
If P2 requests one additional unit of R1 and one unit of R3 the resulting state is safe (already discussed)

25. Determination of an Unsafe State
This state is unsafe because each process needs at least one unit of R1
To avoid deadlock, request by P1 should be denied and P1 should be blocked

26. Unsafe State
Unsafe state is NOT a deadlock state. It merely has the potential for deadlock
Ex: if P1 releases one unit of R1 and one unit of R3 when run, the system would return to a safe state.
Deadlock avoidance strategy merely predicts the possibility of deadlock and assures that there is never such a possibility

27. Deadlock Avoidance Restrictions on use:
Maximum resource requirement must be stated in advance
Processes under consideration must be independent; no synchronization requirements constrain order of execution
There must be a fixed number of resources to allocate
No process may exit while holding resources
Advantage: less restrictive than deadlock prevention; not necessary to preempt and roll back processes as in deadlock detection.

28. Deadlock Detection
Resource access are granted to processes whenever possible. The OS needs:
an algorithm to check if deadlock is present
an algorithm to recover from deadlock
The deadlock check can be performed at every resource request
Such frequent checks consume CPU time

29. A deadlock detection algorithm
Makes use of the following resource-allocation matrices and vectors:
Allocation matrix – A(j,i)
Number of units of resource type i allocated to process j
Available vector – V(i)
Number of units of resource type i available
Request matrix – Q(j,i)
Number of units of resource type i requested by process j
Temporary work vector – W(i)

30. A deadlock detection algorithm
Marks each process not deadlocked. Initially all processes are unmarked. Then perform:
Mark each process j for which: A(j,i) = 0 for all resource type i. (since these are not deadlocked)
Initialize work vector: W(i) = V(i) for all i
REPEAT: Find a unmarked process j such that Q(j,i) <= W(i) for all i. Stop if such j does not exists.
If such j exists: mark process j and set W(i) = W(i) + A(j,i) for all i. Goto REPEAT
At the end: each unmarked process is deadlocked

31. Deadlock detection: comments
Process j is not deadlocked when Q(j,i) <= W(i) for all i.
Then we are optimistic and assume that process j will require no more resources to complete its task
It will thus soon return all of its allocated resources. Thus: W(i) = W(i) + A(j,i) for all i
If this assumption is incorrect, a deadlock may occur later
This deadlock will be detected the next time the deadlock detection algorithm is invoked

32. Deadlock detection: example
Request Allocated Available
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 P1 P2 P3 P4
Mark P4 since it has no allocated resources
Set W = (0,0,0,0,1)
P3’s request <= W. So mark P3 and set W = W + (0,0,0,1,0) = (0,0,0,1,1)
Algorithm terminates. P1 and P2 are deadlocked

33. Deadlock Recovery
Needed when deadlock is detected. The following approaches are possible:
Abort all deadlocked processes (one of the most common solution adopted in OS!!)
Rollback each deadlocked process to some previously defined checkpoint and restart them (original deadlock may reoccur)
Successively abort deadlocked processes until deadlock no longer exists (each time we need to invoke the deadlock detection algorithm)

34. Deadlock Recovery (cont.)
Successively preempt some resources from processes and give them to other processes until deadlock no longer exists
a process that has a resource preempted must be rolled back prior to its acquisition
Reinvocation of detection algorithm required.
For the 2 last approaches: a victim process needs to be selected according to one of the following:
least amount of CPU time consumed so far
least total resources allocated so far
least amount of “work” produced so far
Lowest priority, etc.

35. An integrated deadlock strategy
Table 6.1, page 272.
Each deadlock strategy has its strengths and weaknesses
Using a single strategy may be inefficient
We can combine the previous approaches into the following way:
Group resources into a number of different classes and order them. Ex:
Swappable space (secondary memory)
Process resources (I/O devices, files...)
Main memory, etc.

36. An integrated deadlock strategy
(cont’d)
Use prevention of circular wait strategy to prevent deadlock between resource classes
Use the most appropriate approach for deadlocks within each class
Swappable space: hold-and-wait prevention, deadlock avoidance
Process resources: avoidance, prevention by resource ordering
Main memory: prevention by preemption