1. The Practice of Statistics, 5th Edition Starnes, Tabor, Yates, Moore Bedford Freeman Worth Publishers CHAPTER 10 Estimating with Confidence 10.1 Confidence Intervals: The Basics

2. Learning Objectives After this section, you should be able to: The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition2 DETERMINE the point estimate and margin of error from a confidence interval. INTERPRET a confidence interval in context. INTERPRET a confidence level in context. DESCRIBE how the sample size and confidence level affect the length of a confidence interval. EXPLAIN how practical issues like nonresponse, undercoverage, and response bias can affect the interpretation of a confidence interval. Confidence Intervals: The Basics

3. The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition3 Activity: The Mystery Mean Suppose your teacher has selected a “Mystery Mean” value µ and stored it as “M” in their calculator. Your task is to work together with 3 or 4 students to estimate this value. The following command was executed on their calculator: mean(randNorm(M,20,16)) The result was 240.79. This tells us the calculator chose an SRS of 16 observations from a Normal population with mean M and standard deviation 20. The resulting sample mean of those 16 values was 240.79. Your group must determine an interval of reasonable values for the population mean µ. Use the result above and what you learned about sampling distributions in the previous chapter. Share your team’s results with the class.

4. The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition4 Confidence Intervals: The Basics We learned in Chapter 7 that an ideal point estimator will have no bias and low variability. Since variability is almost always present when calculating statistics from different samples, we must extend our thinking about estimating parameters to include an acknowledgement that repeated sampling could yield different results. A point estimator is a statistic that provides an estimate of a population parameter. The value of that statistic from a sample is called a point estimate.

5. The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition5 The Idea of a Confidence Interval Recall the “Mystery Mean” Activity. Is the value of the population mean µ exactly 240.79? Probably not. However, since the sample mean is 240.79, we could guess that µ is “somewhere” around 240.79. How close to 240.79 is µ likely to be? To answer this question, we must ask another:

6. The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition6 The Idea of a Confidence Interval If we estimate that µ lies somewhere in the interval 230.79 to 250.79, we’d be calculating an interval using a method that captures the true µ in about 95% of all possible samples of this size.

7. The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition7 The Idea of a Confidence Interval A C% confidence interval gives an interval of plausible values for a parameter. The interval is calculated from the data and has the form point estimate ± margin of error The difference between the point estimate and the true parameter value will be less than the margin of error in C% of all samples. The confidence level C gives the overall success rate of the method for calculating the confidence interval. That is, in C% of all possible samples, the method would yield an interval that captures the true parameter value. A C% confidence interval gives an interval of plausible values for a parameter. The interval is calculated from the data and has the form point estimate ± margin of error The difference between the point estimate and the true parameter value will be less than the margin of error in C% of all samples. The confidence level C gives the overall success rate of the method for calculating the confidence interval. That is, in C% of all possible samples, the method would yield an interval that captures the true parameter value. estimate ± margin of error

8. + Different ways to write confidenceintervals 240.79±10230.79 to 250.79230.79 ≤ µ ≤ 250.79(230.79, 250.79)

9. The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition9 Interpreting Confidence Levels and Intervals The confidence level is the overall capture rate if the method is used many times. The sample mean will vary from sample to sample, but when we use the method estimate ± margin of error to get an interval based on each sample, C% of these intervals capture the unknown population mean µ.

10. The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition10 Interpreting Confidence Levels and Intervals Interpreting Confidence Intervals To interpret a C% confidence interval for an unknown parameter, say, “We are C% confident that the interval from _____ to _____ captures the actual value of the [population parameter in context].” Interpreting Confidence Levels To say that we are 95% confident is shorthand for “If we take many samples of the same size from this population, about 95% of them will result in an interval that captures the actual parameter value.”

11. The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition11 Confidence level: To say that we are __% confident is shorthand for “Using this method, __% of all possible samples from this population will give an interval that contains the true parameter.” Confidence interval: To interpret a __% confidence interval for an unknown parameter, say, “ We are __% confident that the actual value of the [population parameter in context] is from _____ to _____ ” Confidence level: To say that we are __% confident is shorthand for “Using this method, __% of all possible samples from this population will give an interval that contains the true parameter.” Confidence interval: To interpret a __% confidence interval for an unknown parameter, say, “ We are __% confident that the actual value of the [population parameter in context] is from _____ to _____ ” Interpreting Confidence Level and Confidence Intervals

12. The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition12 Interpreting Confidence Levels and Intervals Instead, the confidence interval gives us a set of plausible values for the parameter. We interpret confidence levels and confidence intervals in much the same way whether we are estimating a population mean, proportion, or some other parameter. The confidence level does not tell us the chance that a particular confidence interval captures the population parameter. The confidence level tells us how likely it is that the method we are using will produce an interval that captures the population parameter if we use it many times.

13. The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition13 Constructing Confidence Intervals Why settle for 95% confidence when estimating a parameter? The price we pay for greater confidence is a wider interval. When we calculated a 95% confidence interval for the mystery mean µ, we started with estimate ± margin of error This leads to a more general formula for confidence intervals: statistic ± (critical value) (standard deviation of statistic)

14. The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition14 Constructing Confidence Intervals Properties of Confidence Intervals: The “margin of error” is the (critical value) (standard deviation of statistic) The user chooses the confidence level, and the margin of error follows from this choice. The critical value depends on the confidence level and the sampling distribution of the statistic. Greater confidence requires a larger critical value The standard deviation of the statistic depends on the sample size n Calculating a Confidence Interval The confidence interval for estimating a population parameter has the form statistic ± (critical value) (standard deviation of statistic) where the statistic we use is the point estimator for the parameter.

15. The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition15 Using Confidence Intervals Wisely Here are two important cautions to keep in mind when constructing and interpreting confidence intervals. Our method of calculation assumes that the data come from an SRS of size n from the population of interest. The margin of error in a confidence interval covers only chance variation due to random sampling or random assignment.

16. Learning Objectives After this section, you should be able to: The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition16 STATE and CHECK the Random, 10%, and Large Counts conditions for constructing a confidence interval for a population proportion. DETERMINE critical values for calculating a C % confidence interval for a population proportion using a table or technology. CONSTRUCT and INTERPRET a confidence interval for a population proportion. DETERMINE the sample size required to obtain a C % confidence interval for a population proportion with a specified margin of error. Estimating a Population Proportion

17. The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition17 Activity: The Beads Your teacher has a container full of different colored beads. Your goal is to estimate the actual proportion of red beads in the container. Form teams of 3 or 4 students. Determine how to use a cup to get a simple random sample of beads from the container. Each team is to collect one SRS of beads. Determine a point estimate for the unknown population proportion. Find a 95% confidence interval for the parameter p. Consider any conditions that are required for the methods you use. Compare your results with the other teams in the class.

18. The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition18 Conditions for Estimating p Suppose one SRS of beads resulted in 107 red beads and 144 beads of another color. The point estimate for the unknown proportion p of red beads in the population would be How can we use this information to find a confidence interval for p?

19. The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition19 Conditions for Estimating p Before constructing a confidence interval for p, you should check some important conditions Conditions for Constructing a Confidence Interval About a Proportion Random: The data come from a well-designed random sample or randomized experiment. o 10%: When sampling without replacement, check that Large Counts: Both are at least 10.

20. The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition20 Constructing a Confidence Interval for p We can use the general formula from Section 8.1 to construct a confidence interval for an unknown population proportion p: When the standard deviation of a statistic is estimated from data, the results is called the standard error of the statistic.

21. The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition21 Finding a Critical Value How do we find the critical value for our confidence interval? If the Large Counts condition is met, we can use a Normal curve. To find a level C confidence interval, we need to catch the central area C under the standard Normal curve. To find a 95% confidence interval, we use a critical value of 2 based on the 68-95-99.7 rule. Using Table A or a calculator, we can get a more accurate critical value. Note, the critical value z* is actually 1.96 for a 95% confidence level.

22. The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition22 Example: Finding a Critical Value Use Table A to find the critical value z* for an 80% confidence interval. Assume that the Large Counts condition is met. Since we want to capture the central 80% of the standard Normal distribution, we leave out 20%, or 10% in each tail. Search Table A to find the point z* with area 0.1 to its left. So, the critical value z* for an 80% confidence interval is z* = 1.28. The closest entry is z = – 1.28. z.07.08.09 – 1.3.0853.0838.0823 – 1.2.1020.1003.0985 – 1.1.1210.1190.1170

23. The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition23 One-Sample z Interval for a Population Proportion Once we find the critical value z*, our confidence interval for the population proportion p is One-Sample z Interval for a Population Proportion When the conditions are met, a C% confidence interval for the unknown proportion p is where z* is the critical value for the standard Normal curve with C% of its area between −z* and z*.

24. The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition24 One-Sample z Interval for a Population Proportion Suppose you took an SRS of beads from the container and got 107 red beads and 144 white beads. Calculate and interpret a 90% confidence interval for the proportion of red beads in the container. Your teacher claims 50% of the beads are red. Use your interval to comment on this claim. z.03.04.05 – 1.7.0418.0409.0401 – 1.6.0516.0505.0495 – 1.5.0630.0618.0606 For a 90% confidence level, z* = 1.645 We checked the conditions earlier. Sample proportion = 107/251 = 0.426 We are 90% confident that the interval from 0.375 to 0.477 captures the true proportion of red beads in the container. Since this interval gives a range of plausible values for p and since 0.5 is not contained in the interval, we have reason to doubt the claim.

25. The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition25 The Four Step Process We can use the familiar four-step process whenever a problem asks us to construct and interpret a confidence interval. Confidence Intervals: A Four-Step Process State: What parameter do you want to estimate, and at what confidence level? Plan: Identify the appropriate inference method. Check conditions. Do: If the conditions are met, perform calculations. Conclude: Interpret your interval in the context of the problem.

26. The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition26 Choosing the Sample Size In planning a study, we may want to choose a sample size that allows us to estimate a population proportion within a given margin of error. The margin of error (ME) in the confidence interval for p is z* is the standard Normal critical value for the level of confidence we want.

27. The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition27 Choosing the Sample Size In planning a study, we may want to choose a sample size that allows us to estimate a population proportion within a given margin of error. Calculating a Confidence Interval To determine the sample size n that will yield a level C confidence interval for a population proportion p with a maximum margin of error ME, solve the following inequality for n:

28. The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition28 Example: Determining sample size A company has received complaints about its customer service. The managers intend to hire a consultant to carry out a survey of customers. Before contacting the consultant, the company president wants some idea of the sample size that she will be required to pay for. One critical question is the degree of satisfaction with the company’s customer service, measured on a five-point scale. The president wants to estimate the proportion p of customers who are satisfied (that is, who choose either “satisfied” or “very satisfied,” the two highest levels on the five-point scale). She decides that she wants the estimate to be within 3% (0.03) at a 95% confidence level. How large a sample is needed?

29. The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition29 Example: Determining sample size Problem: Determine the sample size needed to estimate p within 0.03 with 95% confidence. The critical value for 95% confidence is z* = 1.96. We have no idea about the true proportion p of satisfied customers, so we decide to use p-hat = 0.5 as our guess. Because the company president wants a margin of error of no more than 0.03, we need to solve the equation: margin of error < 0.03

30. The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition30 Example: Determining sample size Because the company president wants a margin of error of no more than 0.03, we need to solve the equation Multiply both sides by square root n and divide both sides by 0.03. Square both sides. We round up to 1068 respondents to ensure that the margin of error is no more than 3%.

31. Learning Objectives After this section, you should be able to: The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition31 STATE and CHECK the Random, 10%, and Normal/Large Sample conditions for constructing a confidence interval for a population mean. EXPLAIN how the t distributions are different from the standard Normal distribution and why it is necessary to use a t distribution when calculating a confidence interval for a population mean. DETERMINE critical values for calculating a C% confidence interval for a population mean using a table or technology. CONSTRUCT and INTERPRET a confidence interval for a population mean. DETERMINE the sample size required to obtain a C% confidence interval for a population mean with a specified margin of error. Estimating a Population Mean

32. The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition32 When σ Is Unknown: The t Distributions When we don’t know σ, we can estimate it using the sample standard deviation s x. What happens when we standardize?

33. The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition33 When σ Is Unknown: The t Distributions When we standardize based on the sample standard deviation s x, our statistic has a new distribution called a t distribution. It has a different shape than the standard Normal curve: It is symmetric with a single peak at 0, However, it has much more area in the tails. There is a different t distribution for each sample size, specified by its degrees of freedom (df).

34. The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition34 The t Distributions; Degrees of Freedom When we perform inference about a population mean µ using a t distribution, the appropriate degrees of freedom are found by subtracting 1 from the sample size n, making df = n - 1. We will write the t distribution with n - 1 degrees of freedom as t n-1. Conditions for Constructing a Confidence Interval About a Proportion Draw an SRS of size n from a large population that has a Normal distribution with mean µ and standard deviation σ. The statistic has the t distribution with degrees of freedom df = n – 1. When the population distribution isn’t Normal, this statistic will have approximately a t n – 1 distribution if the sample size is large enough.

35. The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition35 The t Distributions; Degrees of Freedom When comparing the density curves of the standard Normal distribution and t distributions, several facts are apparent: The density curves of the t distributions are similar in shape to the standard Normal curve. The spread of the t distributions is a bit greater than that of the standard Normal distribution. The t distributions have more probability in the tails and less in the center than does the standard Normal. As the degrees of freedom increase, the t density curve approaches the standard Normal curve ever more closely.

36. The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition36 Example: Using Table B to Find Critical t* Values Problem: What critical value t* from Table B should be used in constructing a confidence interval for the population mean in each of the following settings? (a) A 95% confidence interval based on an SRS of size n = 12. Solution: In Table B, we consult the row corresponding to df = 12 - 1 = 11. We move across that row to the entry that is directly above 95% confidence level on the bottom of the chart. The desired critical value is t* = 2.201.

37. The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition37 Example: Using Table B to Find Critical t* Values Problem: What critical value t* from Table B should be used in constructing a confidence interval for the population mean in each of the following settings? (b) A 90% confidence interval from a random sample of 48 observations. Upper tail probability p df.10.05.025.02 301.3101.6972.0422.147 401.3031.6842.0212.123 501.2991.6762.0092.109 z*z*1.2821.6451.9602.054 80%90%95%96% Confidence level C Solution: With 48 observations, we want to find the t* critical value for df = 48 - 1 = 47 and 90% confidence. There is no df = 47 row in Table B, so we use the more conservative df = 40. The corresponding critical value is t* = 1.684.

38. The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition38 Conditions for Estimating µ As with proportions, you should check some important conditions before constructing a confidence interval for a population mean. Conditions For Constructing A Confidence Interval About A Mean Random: The data come from a well-designed random sample or randomized experiment. o 10%: When sampling without replacement, check that Normal/Large Sample: The population has a Normal distribution or the sample size is large (n ≥ 30). If the population distribution has unknown shape and n < 30, use a graph of the sample data to assess the Normality of the population. Do not use t procedures if the graph shows strong skewness or outliers.

39. The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition39 Constructing a Confidence Interval for µ To construct a confidence interval for µ, Use critical values from the t distribution with n - 1 degrees of freedom in place of the z critical values. That is,

40. The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition40 One-Sample t Interval for a Population Mean The one-sample t interval for a population mean is similar in both reasoning and computational detail to the one-sample z interval for a population proportion One-Sample t Interval for a Population Mean When the conditions are met, a C% confidence interval for the unknown mean µ is where t* is the critical value for the t n-1 distribution with C% of its area between −t* and t*.

41. The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition41 Example: A one-sample t interval for µ Environmentalists, government officials, and vehicle manufacturers are all interested in studying the auto exhaust emissions produced by motor vehicles. The major pollutants in auto exhaust from gasoline engines are hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen oxides (NOX). Researchers collected data on the NOX levels (in grams/mile) for a random sample of 40 light-duty engines of the same type. The mean NOX reading was 1.2675 and the standard deviation was 0.3332. Problem: (a) Construct and interpret a 95% confidence interval for the mean amount of NOX emitted by light-duty engines of this type.

42. The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition42 Example: Constructing a confidence interval for µ State: We want to estimate the true mean amount µ of NOX emitted by all light-duty engines of this type at a 95% confidence level. Plan: If the conditions are met, we should use a one-sample t interval to estimate µ. Random: The data come from a “random sample” of 40 engines from the population of all light-duty engines of this type. o 10%?: We are sampling without replacement, so we need to assume that there are at least 10(40) = 400 light-duty engines of this type. Large Sample: We don’t know if the population distribution of NOX emissions is Normal. Because the sample size is large, n = 40 > 30, we should be safe using a t distribution.

43. The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition43 Example: Constructing a confidence interval for µ Do: From the information given, x = 1.2675 g/mi and s x = 0.3332 g/mi. To find the critical value t*, we use the t distribution with df = 40 - 1 = 39. _ Unfortunately, there is no row corresponding to 39 degrees of freedom in Table B. We can’t pretend we have a larger sample size than we actually do, so we use the more conservative df = 30.

44. The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition44 Example: Constructing a confidence interval for µ = (1.1599, 1.3751) Conclude: We are 95% confident that the interval from 1.1599 to 1.3751 grams/mile captures the true mean level of nitrogen oxides emitted by this type of light-duty engine.

45. The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition45 Choosing the Sample Size We determine a sample size for a desired margin of error when estimating a mean in much the same way we did when estimating a proportion. Choosing Sample Size for a Desired Margin of Error When Estimating µ To determine the sample size n that will yield a level C confidence interval for a population mean with a specified margin of error ME: Get a reasonable value for the population standard deviation σ from an earlier or pilot study. Find the critical value z* from a standard Normal curve for confidence level C. Set the expression for the margin of error to be less than or equal to ME and solve for n:

46. The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition46 Example: Determining sample size from margin of error Researchers would like to estimate the mean cholesterol level µ of a particular variety of monkey that is often used in laboratory experiments. They would like their estimate to be within 1 milligram per deciliter (mg/dl) of the true value of µ at a 95% confidence level. A previous study involving this variety of monkey suggests that the standard deviation of cholesterol level is about 5 mg/dl. Problem: Obtaining monkeys is time-consuming and expensive, so the researchers want to know the minimum number of monkeys they will need to generate a satisfactory estimate.

47. The Practice of Statistics, 5 th Edition47 Example: Determining sample size from margin of error Solution: For 95% confidence, z* = 1.96. We will use σ = 5 as our best guess for the standard deviation of the monkeys’ cholesterol level. Set the expression for the margin of error to be at most 1 and solve for n : Because 96 monkeys would give a slightly larger margin of error than desired, the researchers would need 97 monkeys to estimate the cholesterol levels to their satisfaction.