1. VITAL VILLAGES, THRIVING TOWNS

2. IRON TOOLS AND AGRICULTURE
Iron use began around 3000 years ago.
Three major inventions which helped improve agriculture:-
Axes – for clearing forests
Iron ploughshare
New irrigational methods – canals, wells, tanks and artificial lakes

3. WHO LIVED IN THE VILLAGES?
SOUTHERN INDIA
NORTHERN INDIA
Vellalar
Grama bhojaka
Uzhavar
Grihapati
Kadaisiyar/adimai
Dasa karmakara
Vellalar and gramabhojaka were large landowners. They also used to collect taxes and helped to maintain law and order.
Uzhavar and Grihapati were ordinary ploughmen. They were independent and small land owners.
Kadaisiyar/adimai and dasakarmakara were landless labourers including slaves who earned their livin working on other’s fields.

4. EARLY LITERATURE
Sangam literature in Tamil were composed 2300 years ago. They were composed and compiled in assemblies of poets that were held in Madurai.
Jatakas were probably composed by ordinary people and preserved by Buddhist monks. They tell stories about common man and his life.

5. EVIDENCES FOR EARLY CITIES
Sculptures used to decorate railings, pillars and gateways of buildings.
Cities which were capitals of mahajanapadas, which had massive fortification walls.
Ring wells, used as toilets, drains and garbage dumps.
Palaces, markets and homes of ordinary people.
Accounts of sailors and travellers who visited.

6. CITIES WITH MANY FUNCTIONS - MATHURA
Located at crossroads of two major routes of travel and trade.
There were fortifications around the city and several religious shrines like Buddhist monasteries, Jaina shrines and Krishna shrines.
Farmers and herders from adjoining cities provided food to cities.
Centre of extremely fine sculptures.
Around 2000 years ago, it became the second capital of Kushanas.

7. CRAFTS AND CRAFTS PERSONS
The Northern Black Polished Ware:
Got the name of the place where it was found
(northern part of the subcontinent )
Black in colour
Has a fine sheen.
Cloth
The manufacture of cloth was important
Famous centres such as Varanasi in the north, and Madurai in the south
Both men and women worked in these centres 7

8. SHRENIS Association of crafts persons and merchants known as shrenis.8

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12. ARIKAMEDU

13. A warehouse made of brick was found.
A coastal settlement between 2200 and years ago where ships unloaded goods.
A warehouse made of brick was found.
Pottery like amphorae and Arretine ware originating from the Mediterranean region found.
Amphorae: tall double handled jars containing wine or oil.
Arretine ware: stamped red glazed pottery made by pressing wet clay into stamped mould. 13

14. ARIKAMEDU Small tanks used as dyeing vats used to dye clothes found.
Evidence of the making of beads and semi-precious stones and glass
Several pieces of pottery have inscriptions in Brahmi, which was used to write Tamil.