1. Social Process Theories for Delinquency

2. Historical Background
These theories reached their zenith in the 1960’s
Self-report studies were revealing that crime was not limited to lower class
It became necessary to develop a theory that could account for middle class crime as well.

3. General Assumptions
Begin with the assumption that anyone is capable of committing a crime.
Argue that delinquency can be explained by the nature of socialization experiences of individuals
Hence, they tend to focus on the immediate social milieu of the individual--e.g., family, peer group, etc.
As such they focus on the process of becoming delinquent

4. Types of Social Process Theories
Two broad types of process theories:
Social Learning Theories
Social Control Theories

5. Social Process Theories I:
Social Learning Theories

6. Social Learning Theories
General Features
Children are not born with a tendency to want to do bad
Delinquency is a function of learning the norms, values and behaviors associated with delinquency
Without opportunities to learn the values and techniques associated with delinquency, individuals would not become delinquent

7. Differential Association Theory
Developed by Edwin Sutherland
The theory:
Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with other persons
Principle part of learning takes place in intimate personal groups
Learning includes: techniques of committing the crime and the drives, values and motives
Direction of drives and motives determined by relative “definitions” (influences) favorable or unfavorable to law violation
One becomes delinquent because of excess definitions favorable to violating the law
Differential associations vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity.
Process of learning delinquency involves same process as any other learning
Edwin Sutherland

8. Differential Reinforcement Theory
Developed by Ron Akers
Represents a synthesis between differential association and operant conditioning
The theory:
Behavior is reinforced with positive rewards
Rewards are given and evaluated in interaction with significant others
Hence, the kinds of behavior that are reinforced depend on one’s differential associations
Ron Akers

9. Drift and Neutralization Theory
The Drift Hypothesis
Delinquents do not strictly adhere to delinquent cultural values, but are affected by both criminal and conventional values
Hence, delinquents find themselves in “drift” between the two sets of values
Subculture of delinquency provides the delinquent with a vocabulary to neutralize the demands of conventional society
Techniques of Neutralization
Denial of responsibility
Denial of injury
Denial of victim
Condemnation of condemner
Appeal to higher loyalties
Gresham Sykes

10. Social Process Theories II:
Social Control Theories

11. General Assumptions
Human beings are predisposed toward maximizing self-interest
Hence, everyone has the capacity to commit crime
Most people don’t commit crime because of constraining influences
Hence, what is to be explained is not “Why do some people engage in delinquency?” but “Why do most people not engage in delinquency?”

12. Containment Theory Developed by Walter Reckless The Theory
“Pressures” and “pulls” toward delinquency are everywhere
Counteracting these pressures and pulls are “containments” of which there are two types:
outer containments--structural buffers, such as intact family, positive discipline, etc.
inner containments--internalized values, high frustration tolerance, etc.
Reckless identified a positive self concept as the critical containment insulating against delinquency.
Walter Reckless

13. Social Bond Theory Developed by Travis Hirschi The Theory:
Assumes that all people have the capacity to be delinquent
Preventing most people from engaging in delinquency is a “bonding” to conventional society
Hirschi identifies 4 elements to the social bond (next slide)

14. The Social Bond