1. Chapter 1 Introduction to Earth Science

2. Overview of Earth Science Earth Science is the name for the group of sciences that deals with Earth and its neighbors in space. Earth Science is the name for the group of sciences that deals with Earth and its neighbors in space. Earth science includes many subdivisions of geology such as geochemistry, geophysics, geobiology and paleontology, oceanography, meteorology and astronomy. Earth science includes many subdivisions of geology such as geochemistry, geophysics, geobiology and paleontology, oceanography, meteorology and astronomy.

3. Section 1.2 A view of Earth If you were up in space and you looked down on Earth, what would you see? If you were up in space and you looked down on Earth, what would you see? The Earth’s physical environment is divided into three major spheres: hydrosphere, atmosphere and geosphere The Earth’s physical environment is divided into three major spheres: hydrosphere, atmosphere and geosphere Hydrosphere pertains to the water portion of our plant Hydrosphere pertains to the water portion of our plant Atmosphere is the earth’s gaseos envelope Atmosphere is the earth’s gaseos envelope Geosphere is the rocks and crust Geosphere is the rocks and crust Biosphere: living and non living things. Biosphere: living and non living things.

4. Plate Tectonics There are two types of forces affecting Earth’s surface. There are two types of forces affecting Earth’s surface. Destructive forces such as weathering and erosion that wear away high points and make them flat. Destructive forces such as weathering and erosion that wear away high points and make them flat. Constructive forces such as mountain building and volcanism build up the surface by raising the land and depositing new material in the form of lava. Constructive forces such as mountain building and volcanism build up the surface by raising the land and depositing new material in the form of lava. In the early part of the 20 th century a revolution began when the idea that the continents had moved about the face of the Earth In the early part of the 20 th century a revolution began when the idea that the continents had moved about the face of the Earth

5. Global Grid Scientists use 2 special Earth measurements to describe location. Scientists use 2 special Earth measurements to describe location. Latitude is the distance north or south of the equator, measured in degrees Latitude is the distance north or south of the equator, measured in degrees Longitude is the distance east or west of the prime meridian, measured in degrees. Longitude is the distance east or west of the prime meridian, measured in degrees. Earth is 360 degrees in circumference Earth is 360 degrees in circumference Longitude Latitude

6. The line of latitude around the middle of the globe, at 0 degrees, is the equator The line of latitude around the middle of the globe, at 0 degrees, is the equator The prime meridian is the longitude that marks degree of longitude. The prime meridian is the longitude that marks degree of longitude. Lines of latitude and longitude form a global grid that allows you to state your exact location. Lines of latitude and longitude form a global grid that allows you to state your exact location. The equator divides the earth in 2 halves called the northern and southern hemispheres The equator divides the earth in 2 halves called the northern and southern hemispheres The prime meridian and the 180 meridian divide the earth into eastern and western hemispheres. The prime meridian and the 180 meridian divide the earth into eastern and western hemispheres. Q) How does the global grid divide Earth? Q) How does the global grid divide Earth?

7. Maps and Mapping A map is a flat representation of Earth’s surface. (Remember the Earth is round) A map is a flat representation of Earth’s surface. (Remember the Earth is round) No matter what kind of map is made, some portion of the surface will always look either too small, too big, or out of place. Mapmakers have, however, found ways to limit the distortion of shape, size, distance, and direction. No matter what kind of map is made, some portion of the surface will always look either too small, too big, or out of place. Mapmakers have, however, found ways to limit the distortion of shape, size, distance, and direction. There are several different types of maps that are made differently to accommodate the people using them. There are several different types of maps that are made differently to accommodate the people using them.

8. Mercator Projection Created in 1959 by Gerardus Mercator to help sailors navigate around Earth. Created in 1959 by Gerardus Mercator to help sailors navigate around Earth. The lines of longitude are parallel, making the grid rectangular The lines of longitude are parallel, making the grid rectangular Size and distance are distorted, but shows direction accurately Size and distance are distorted, but shows direction accurately Still used by seagoing navigators today Still used by seagoing navigators today

9. Mercator Projection

10. Projection Maps Robinson projection maps show most distances, size, and shapes accurately. Robinson projection maps show most distances, size, and shapes accurately. Distorted around the edges of the map. Distorted around the edges of the map. Conic projection maps are made by wrapping a cone of paper around a globe at a particular line of latitude, and various points are projected onto the paper. Conic projection maps are made by wrapping a cone of paper around a globe at a particular line of latitude, and various points are projected onto the paper. Distortion occurs in areas away from the latitude. Distortion occurs in areas away from the latitude. Used for road and weather maps. Used for road and weather maps.

11. Gnomonic projections are made by placing a piece of paper on a globe so that it touches a single point on the globe’s surface. Gnomonic projections are made by placing a piece of paper on a globe so that it touches a single point on the globe’s surface. Various points and lines are projected onto the paper. Various points and lines are projected onto the paper. Distance and direction are distorted Distance and direction are distorted Allows sailors to accurately determine distance and direction across the oceans. Allows sailors to accurately determine distance and direction across the oceans. Q) What major problem must mapmakers overcome Q) What major problem must mapmakers overcome A) Representing round Earth on flat paper causes distortion in shape, size, distance. A) Representing round Earth on flat paper causes distortion in shape, size, distance.

12. Conic Projection

13. Topographic Maps A topographic map represents Earth’s three- dimensional surface in two dimensions A topographic map represents Earth’s three- dimensional surface in two dimensions Topographic maps differ from the other maps discussed so far because topographic maps show elevation. Topographical maps show elevation of Earth’s surface by means of contour lines. Topographic maps differ from the other maps discussed so far because topographic maps show elevation. Topographical maps show elevation of Earth’s surface by means of contour lines. Most show bodies of water and roads Most show bodies of water and roads Important for geologists, hikers, campers Important for geologists, hikers, campers

14. Contour lines Contour lines Show the elevation of land Show the elevation of land Every position along a single contour line is the same elevation. Every position along a single contour line is the same elevation. Adjacent contour lines represent change in elevation. Adjacent contour lines represent change in elevation. Contour lines that form a circle represent a hill Contour lines that form a circle represent a hill The closer the lines the steeper the slope The closer the lines the steeper the slope A depression is represented by circular contours that have hachure marks. A depression is represented by circular contours that have hachure marks. Contour lines never touch or intersect Contour lines never touch or intersect Contour interval Contour interval Tells you the difference in elevation between adjacent lines Tells you the difference in elevation between adjacent lines Q) How do topographic maps indicate change in elevation

15. Topographic maps

16. Scale Scale A map represents a certain amount of area on Earth’s surface. It is important to be able to determine distance on a map and relate it to the real world. A map represents a certain amount of area on Earth’s surface. It is important to be able to determine distance on a map and relate it to the real world. A map is drawn to scale where a certain distance on the map is equal to a certain distance at the surface A map is drawn to scale where a certain distance on the map is equal to a certain distance at the surface A bar scale is provided on the map. This allows you to use a ruler to measure the distance on the map and then line the ruler up to the bar to determine the distance represented. A bar scale is provided on the map. This allows you to use a ruler to measure the distance on the map and then line the ruler up to the bar to determine the distance represented.

17. Geologic Maps Geologic Maps A geologic map shows the type and age of the rocks that are exposed, or crop out at the surface. A geologic map shows the type and age of the rocks that are exposed, or crop out at the surface. Once individual rock formations are identified, and mapped out, their distribution and extent are drawn onto the map. Once individual rock formations are identified, and mapped out, their distribution and extent are drawn onto the map. Each rock formation is assigned a color and sometimes a pattern Each rock formation is assigned a color and sometimes a pattern Contour lines are often included to provide a more detailed and useful map. Contour lines are often included to provide a more detailed and useful map.

19. Advanced Technology Advanced technology is used to make maps that are more accurate than ever before Advanced technology is used to make maps that are more accurate than ever before Today’s technology provides us with the ability to more precisely analyze Earth’s physical properties. Today’s technology provides us with the ability to more precisely analyze Earth’s physical properties. Scientists are able to use satellites and computers to send and receive data Scientists are able to use satellites and computers to send and receive data Collecting data from a distance above Earth’s surface is called remote sensing. Collecting data from a distance above Earth’s surface is called remote sensing.

20. We can use this technology in our daily life. We can use this technology in our daily life. GPS (global positioning system) can provide maps in our cars. GPS (global positioning system) can provide maps in our cars. GPS is used by ship and airplanes for navigation GPS is used by ship and airplanes for navigation GPS is used to track wildlife, study earthquakes, measure erosion, and many other purposes. GPS is used to track wildlife, study earthquakes, measure erosion, and many other purposes.

21. Section 1.3 Assessment 1. Describe the two sets of lines that are used on globes and some maps. 1. Describe the two sets of lines that are used on globes and some maps. 2. What happens to the images on the globe when they are transferred to a flat surface? 2. What happens to the images on the globe when they are transferred to a flat surface? 3. What is the purpose of contour lines on topographic maps? 3. What is the purpose of contour lines on topographic maps? 4. What types of advanced technology are used in mapmaking today? 4. What types of advanced technology are used in mapmaking today?

22. Section 1.4 Earth System Science Earth has many different parts or spheres that interact and are interconnected. Earth has many different parts or spheres that interact and are interconnected. This way of looking at Earth is called Earth system science. Its aim to understand Earth as a system made up of numerous interacting parts or subsystems. This way of looking at Earth is called Earth system science. Its aim to understand Earth as a system made up of numerous interacting parts or subsystems. Using this type of approach, we hope to eventually understand and solve many of our global environmental problems Using this type of approach, we hope to eventually understand and solve many of our global environmental problems Q) What is Earth system science? Q) What is Earth system science?

23. What is a system? A system can be any size group of interacting parts that form a complex whole. A system can be any size group of interacting parts that form a complex whole. Most natural systems are driven by sources of energy that move matter and/or energy from one place to another. Most natural systems are driven by sources of energy that move matter and/or energy from one place to another. A closed system energy moves freely in and out of the system, but no matter enters or leaves the system. A closed system energy moves freely in and out of the system, but no matter enters or leaves the system. A car cooling system is an example of a closed system A car cooling system is an example of a closed system

24. In an open system both energy and matter flow into and out of the system. Most natural systems are open. In an open system both energy and matter flow into and out of the system. Most natural systems are open. An example of an open system would be river system. An example of an open system would be river system.

25. Earth as a System The Earth receives power from two sources The Earth receives power from two sources One source is the sun, which drives external processes that occur in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and at Earth’s surface. One source is the sun, which drives external processes that occur in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and at Earth’s surface. The Earth’s interior is the second source of energy. Heat from the formation of Earth and the continuous decay of radioactive elements produce volcanoes, earthquakes, and mountains. The Earth’s interior is the second source of energy. Heat from the formation of Earth and the continuous decay of radioactive elements produce volcanoes, earthquakes, and mountains.

26. The Earth’s systems are linked and so change in one system can cause change within another system. Ex. The eruption of a volcano can change the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. The Earth’s systems are linked and so change in one system can cause change within another system. Ex. The eruption of a volcano can change the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. Q) How do we know that Earth’s systems are connected? Q) How do we know that Earth’s systems are connected? Humans are also part of the Earth system Humans are also part of the Earth system Our actions produce changes in all of the other parts of the Earth system. Our actions produce changes in all of the other parts of the Earth system. Burning gasoline and coal, building breakwaters, disposal of waste, clearing land ect.. Burning gasoline and coal, building breakwaters, disposal of waste, clearing land ect..

27. People and the Environment Environment refers to everything that surrounds and influences an organism. Environment refers to everything that surrounds and influences an organism. Some of these are biological and social. Others are nonliving, such as water, air, soil and rock. Some of these are biological and social. Others are nonliving, such as water, air, soil and rock. Temperature, humidity, and sunlight are conditions that are also included. Temperature, humidity, and sunlight are conditions that are also included. Most of Earth science can be characterized as environmental science Most of Earth science can be characterized as environmental science

28. Q) What are examples of nonliving factors? Q) What are examples of nonliving factors? Environmental science focuses on the relationship between people and nature. Environmental science focuses on the relationship between people and nature. Humans can have a large impact on natural systems and cannot always adjust to changes we make. Humans can have a large impact on natural systems and cannot always adjust to changes we make. Resources Resources Include water and soil, metallic and nonmetallic minerals, and energy Include water and soil, metallic and nonmetallic minerals, and energy Resources are commonly divided into two broad categories. Renewable and Nonrewable. Resources are commonly divided into two broad categories. Renewable and Nonrewable.

29. Renewable resources can be replenished over relatively short time spans. Renewable resources can be replenished over relatively short time spans. Plants & animals for food, natural fibers for clothing, and forest. Wind, water, and sun are considered renewable Plants & animals for food, natural fibers for clothing, and forest. Wind, water, and sun are considered renewable Nonrenewable resources would be things such as: Iron, aluminum, copper, oil, natural gas, and coal. Nonrenewable resources would be things such as: Iron, aluminum, copper, oil, natural gas, and coal. Although these and other resources continue to form, the processes that create them are so slow that it takes millions of years for significant deposits to accumulate. Although these and other resources continue to form, the processes that create them are so slow that it takes millions of years for significant deposits to accumulate. When the present supplies are exhausted, there will be no more When the present supplies are exhausted, there will be no more Q) How do renewable and nonrenewable resources differ? Q) How do renewable and nonrenewable resources differ?

30. Population The population of the Earth is growing rapidly. By 2010 it is estimated that 7 billion people will inhabit the Earth. The population of the Earth is growing rapidly. By 2010 it is estimated that 7 billion people will inhabit the Earth. Currently there are approx. 6,607,558,497 in the world. Currently there are approx. 6,607,558,497 in the world. The usage of our natural resources has increased rapidly with the population growth. The usage of our natural resources has increased rapidly with the population growth.

31. Environmental Problems Some of the environmental problems scientist face are local, regional, and some are global. Some of the environmental problems scientist face are local, regional, and some are global. Significant threats to the environment include air pollution, acid rain, ozone depletion, and global warming. Significant threats to the environment include air pollution, acid rain, ozone depletion, and global warming. The loss of fertile soil to erosion, the disposal of toxic waste, and the contaminants and depletion of water resources are also a concern. The loss of fertile soil to erosion, the disposal of toxic waste, and the contaminants and depletion of water resources are also a concern. Knowledge about Earth and how it works is necessary to our survival an well being. Resources are limited. Knowledge about Earth and how it works is necessary to our survival an well being. Resources are limited.

32. Section 1.4 Assessment 1. Why do scientist study Earth as a system? 1. Why do scientist study Earth as a system? 2. If a system is a collection of interacting parts, what happens when one of the parts is changed? 2. If a system is a collection of interacting parts, what happens when one of the parts is changed? 3. What are two sources of energy that power Earth’s systems? 3. What are two sources of energy that power Earth’s systems? 4. List three ways that humans affect Earth’s systems 4. List three ways that humans affect Earth’s systems

33. Section 1.5 What is Scientific Inquiry? All science is based on two assumptions. All science is based on two assumptions. The natural world behaves in a consistent and predictable manner The natural world behaves in a consistent and predictable manner Through careful, systematic study, we can understand and explain the natural world’s behavior. Through careful, systematic study, we can understand and explain the natural world’s behavior. The development of new scientific knowledge involves some basic steps The development of new scientific knowledge involves some basic steps First, scientist collect data through observation and measurement. These date are essential to science and serve as the starting point for the development theories. First, scientist collect data through observation and measurement. These date are essential to science and serve as the starting point for the development theories.

34. Hypothesis Once data have been gathered, scientists try to explain how or why things happens in the manner observed. Scientists do this by stating a possible explanation called a scientific hypothesis. Once data have been gathered, scientists try to explain how or why things happens in the manner observed. Scientists do this by stating a possible explanation called a scientific hypothesis. Before a hypothesis can become an accepted part of scientific knowledge, it must be tested and analyzed. Before a hypothesis can become an accepted part of scientific knowledge, it must be tested and analyzed. Hypothesis that fail rigorous testing are discarded. Hypothesis that fail rigorous testing are discarded.

35. Theory When a hypothesis has survived extensive testing it becomes a scientific theory. When a hypothesis has survived extensive testing it becomes a scientific theory. A scientific theory is well tested and widely accepted by the scientific community and best explains certain observable fact. A scientific theory is well tested and widely accepted by the scientific community and best explains certain observable fact.

36. Scientific Method The process of gathering facts through observations and formulating scientific hypothesis and theories is called the scientific method. The process of gathering facts through observations and formulating scientific hypothesis and theories is called the scientific method. Many scientific investigations involve the following steps Many scientific investigations involve the following steps 1) the collection of scientific facts through observation and measurement 1) the collection of scientific facts through observation and measurement

37. 2) the development of one or more working hypothesis of models to explain these facts 2) the development of one or more working hypothesis of models to explain these facts 3) development of observations and experiments to test the hypothesis, and 3) development of observations and experiments to test the hypothesis, and 4) the acceptance, modification, or rejection of the hypothesis based on extensive testing. 4) the acceptance, modification, or rejection of the hypothesis based on extensive testing.

38. Section 1.5 Assessment 1. You have just come up with an explanation to a question that has bothered you for some time. What must you do to have your explanation become a hypothesis. 1. You have just come up with an explanation to a question that has bothered you for some time. What must you do to have your explanation become a hypothesis. 2. What is the difference between a scientific theory and a hypothesis. 2. What is the difference between a scientific theory and a hypothesis. 3. When is a model useful in scientific investigations? 3. When is a model useful in scientific investigations? 4. What happens if more than one hypothesis is put forward to explain the same observation? 4. What happens if more than one hypothesis is put forward to explain the same observation?