1. CHAPTER 8 MEMORY & INFORMATION PROCESSING

2. Learning Objectives
What is the general orientation of the information-processing model to cognition?
What are the specific components of the model and how does information “flow” through the system?

3. Information Processing Approach
Reflects the “Cognitive Revolution”
Used computer as model
Hardware is the computer itself
In humans it is the brain
Software programs; e.g., word processing
In humans: How information is registered, interpreted, stored, retrieved and analyzed

4. Memory Systems
Sensory Register: fleeting
With attention, encoding occurs
Storage
Short-term memory limited to 7 items
Working memory: active STM
Long-term memory relatively permanent
Retrieval
Recognition; recall; cued recall

5. A model of Information Processing

6. Implicit and Explicit Memory
Implicit Memory
Unintentional, automatic
Information from everyday experiences
Does not change over lifespan
Explicit Memory
Deliberate, effortful
Increases from infancy to adulthood

7. Problem Solving
Using the information processing system to reach a goal (solve a problem)
Executive Control Processes
Selection from storage
Planning, monitoring, interpreting, etc.
Parallel processing
Rather than sequential tasks

8. Problem Solving 2
Possible difficulties for young children
Not paying attention to relevant aspects
Unable to hold info in working memory
Lack strategies for:
Transfer from STM to LTM
Retrieval from LTM
Not enough knowledge to understand

9. Learning Objectives
How do researchers assess infant memory?
What information can infants typically remember?
What are the limitations of infants’ memory?

10. The Infant
Imitation
Of facial expressions by 6 weeks
Deferred imitation by 6 months
Habituation present at birth
Operant Conditioning
Ribbon & mobile task
Cued recall: kick when ribbon attached

11. Learning Objectives
What are the four major hypotheses about why memory improves with age?
Is there evidence to support each hypothesis?

12. Four Hypotheses
Dramatic improvements in learning, memory and problem solving
Four major hypotheses as to why
1) Changes in basic capacities?
Not storage or senses
Changes in speed allow parallel processing
Automaticity frees working memory space

13. Four Hypotheses (continued)
2) Do memory strategies change?
Rehearsal by age 7
Organization by age 10
Elaboration later
Retrieval strategies
External cues needed when younger

14. Four Hypotheses (continued)
3) Changes in knowledge about memory?
Metamemory: Knowledge of memory
Present in young children
Awareness of memory processes is beneficial even to young children
Gets better with age
Experience is important

15. Four Hypotheses (Continued)
4) Changes in world knowledge?
Yes. Knowledge base clearly affects learning and memory
Domain familiarity and expertise
E.g., Chi (1978) study of Chess

16. Learning Objectives
When do autobiographical memories begin and what possible explanations can account for childhood amnesia?
How do scripts influence memory?
How do problem solving capacities change during childhood?
What explanation does Siegler propose for changes in problem solving?

17. Autobiographical Memories
Infantile Amnesia before age 2–3
Lack of language
Fuzzy trace theory
Scripts: Typical sequence of actions
Affect memory
Eyewitness Memory
Improves with age; younger suggestible
Accuracy better with open questions

18. Changes in Problem Solving
Improves with age in childhood
New cognitive structures (Piaget)
Rule Assessment (Siegler)
Use of multiple strategies produces best strategy (most adaptive strategy)
More efficient strategies
Natural Selection
Most adaptive strategy survives

19. Learning Objectives
What developments occur in the information processing abilities of adolescents?

20. Adolescence
New strategies emerge (elaboration)
Better use of strategies
Basic capacities increase (e.g., speed)
Knowledge base increases
Metacognition improves

21. Learning Objectives
In what ways do memory and cognition change during adulthood?
What are the strengths and weaknesses of older adults’ abilities?
What factors help explain the declines in abilities during older adulthood?
What can be done to minimize losses with age?
How are problem-solving skills affected by aging?

22. Adulthood—Developing Expertise
Domain specific knowledge base increases
Strategy Use
More organized
More elaborative techniques
Also domain specific
Automaticity of more information
Autobiographical: Memory from age is higher than from other points in life

23. Memory and Aging
Older adults learn more slowly
Remember less learned information
Declines by age 70
Timed tasks, unfamiliar tasks
Recall versus Recognition
Explicit memory tasks more trouble
Cognitively demanding tasks

24. Explaining Declines
Negative beliefs affect memory skills
Strategy use not spontaneous
Attention becomes more effortful (motivation)
Processing speed decreases
Sensory, health, and lifestyle changes
Cohort differences (age and IQ)
Declines NOT universal

25. Declines in memory skills in old age are not universal
Declines in memory skills in old age are not universal. In deaf culture and in Chinese culture, elderly people are not stereotyped as forgetful or senile. Perhaps as a result, Chinese elders perform almost as well as young Chinese adults on memory tasks, whereas in the United States, elders, especially in the hearing population, perform poorly.

26. Problem Solving
Unfamiliar tasks more difficult
Meaninglessness a problem
Contextual view
Evaluate nature of the task
Is speed required?
Unfamiliar, unexercised skills
Consider individual differences
Everyday functioning maintained