1. Near Fault Ground Motions and Fault Rupture Directivity Pulse Norm Abrahamson Pacific Gas & Electric Company

2. Near Fault Effects Directivity Directivity  Related to the direction of the rupture front  Forward directivity: rupture toward the site (site away from the epicenter)  Backward directivity: rupture away from the site (site near the epicenter) Fling Fling  Related to the permanent tectonic deformation at the site

3. Velocity Pulses Forward Directivity Forward Directivity  Two-sided velocity pulse due to constructive interference of SH waves from generated from parts of the rupture located between the site and epicenter  Constructive interference occurs if slip direction is aligned with the rupture direction  Occurs at sites located close to the fault but away from the epicenter for strike-slip Fling Fling  One-sided velocity pulse due to tectonic deformation  Occurs at sites located near the fault rupture independent of the epicenter location

4. Near-Fault Velocity Pulses DirectivityFling

5. Observations of Directivity and Fling Sense of Slip DirectivityFling Strike-Slip Fault Normal Fault Parallel Dip-Slip Fault Normal

6. Kocaeli Rupture and Strong Motion Stations

7. Example of Near-Fault Effects (Kocaeli Earthquake)

8. Directivity Effects (Somerville et al, 1997) Two Effects on Ground Motion Amplitudes Changes in the average horizontal component as compared to standard attenuation relations Changes in the average horizontal component as compared to standard attenuation relations  Increase in the amplitude of long period ground motion for rupture toward the site  Decrease in the amplitude of long period ground motion for rupture away from the site Systematic differences in the ground motions on the two horizontal components Systematic differences in the ground motions on the two horizontal components  Fault normal component is larger than the fault parallel component at long periods

9. 1992 Landers Earthquake Forward Directivity  Constructive interference of velocity pulse  Short duration Backward Directivity  No velocity pulse  Long duration

10. Directivity

11. Early Models for Directivity Effects (Somerville et al 1999; Abrahamson 2000) Additional Parameters Required Strike-Slip Fault Strike-Slip Fault X = fraction of fault rupture between the epicenter and the site  = angle between the fault strike and the epicentral direction from the site

12. Directivity Parameters for Strike-Slip Faults Used normalized length, X, to combine different earthquakes

13. Abrahamson (2000) Directivity Factors 5% damping, Ave Horiz, Strike-Slip

14. Changes to Directivity Models Spudich and Chiou (2008) Spudich and Chiou (2008)  Do not normalized rupture length  Use s, not X=s/L  Saturation is period dependent  Not based on X  Consider the radiation pattern  Not just SS, DS categories

15. Directivity for T=3 sec

16. Somerville et al (1997) Scale Factors for FN/Ave Horiz

17. Duration Scaling (Somerville et al, 1999)

18. Strong Motion Stations from the Chi-Chi Earthquake

19. Chi-Chi Earthquake S S N Weak Directivity due to shallow hypocenter

20. Fling Effects

21. Time Domain Fling Model

22. Separation of Fling and Wave Propagation Effects

23. Parameters Required for Fling Amplitude of Fling Amplitude of Fling  From fault slip and geodetic data Duration (period) of Fling Duration (period) of Fling  From strong motion data Arrival Time of Fling Arrival Time of Fling  From numerical modeling  Relative timing of fling and S-waves

24. Fault Displacement

25. Attenuation of Fling Amplitude Example from Kocaeli Geodetic Data

26. Attenuation of Fling Amplitude for Strike-Slip Earthquakes

27. Duration of Fling Measured from Strong Motion Recordings (SKR from Kocaeli)

28. Fling Period

29. Model for Duration of Fling (slope fixed by assuming median slip-velocity is independent of magnitude)

30. Fling Effects Current attenuation relations do not include fling Current attenuation relations do not include fling  Fling effects scale differently with magnitude and distance than ground motion due to wave propagation A separate ground motion model is needed for the fling, which then needed to be combined with the ground motion due to wave propagation A separate ground motion model is needed for the fling, which then needed to be combined with the ground motion due to wave propagation

31. Issues for Combining Fling and Vibratory Ground Motion What is the timing between fling and S-waves? What is the timing between fling and S-waves?  For sites close to the fault, fling arrives near the S-wave Polarity of fling and S-waves? Polarity of fling and S-waves?  For design ground motions, require constructive interference of velocity

32. Example Timing of Fling

33. Ground Motion with Fling

34. Average Spectrum Including Fling

35. Near Fault Ground Motion Effects on Landslides Use Newmark Displacement as a measure of impact on landslides Use Newmark Displacement as a measure of impact on landslides Key Parameters (Watson-Lamprey and Abrahamson, 2006) Key Parameters (Watson-Lamprey and Abrahamson, 2006)  Yield Acceleration, k y  Ground motion level  PGA/k y, PGV  Duration  Uniform duration above k y

36. Example of Scaling of Newmark Displacements M=7, Rrup=5 km, Rev, HW, Rock

37. Near Fault Ground Motion Effects for Landslides PGAPGVDuration Forward Directivity No Change IncreaseDecrease Backward Directivity No Change DecreaseIncrease Fling Increase (one sided) No Change

38. Example: Fling Effects on Deformations

40. Summary Near Fault effects for Landslides Near Fault effects for Landslides  Directivity  Duration and long period (PGV) amplitude are inversely correlated Some offsetting of directivity effects on deformationsSome offsetting of directivity effects on deformations  Fling  Can leads to 50% increase in deformation  Usually not considered in design ground motions  Impact of vertical is more important for fling