1. Subcultural Theory Explains deviance in terms of the subculture of a certain group. Some groups of criminals or delinquents might develop norms which encourage and reward criminal activity. Form a delinquent subculture.

2. Albert Cohen Albert Cohen attempted to explain why working-class youths commit criminal and anti-social acts. He suggested that working-class youths suffer from STATUS FRUSTRATION.

3. Status Frustration Defined as failures by the wider society working-class youths experience status frustration. They cannot achieve the legitimate goals. They replace them with an alternative set of norms and values.

4. The working-class youths try and achieve status in other ways. They may join a gang whose goals can be achieved. A collective rather than an individual response.

5. Crime may be non-utilitarian eg joy- riding, vandalism, not directed to monetary gain. The young man gain status in each other’s eyes but also hit back at a society which has denied them the opportunity to succeed.

6. Evaluation Offers an explanation for non-utilitarian crime and collective deviance.

7. Cloward and Ohlin Point out that not all lower class youths will be able to achieve success through legitimate means. Too many applicants results in selection. Delinquency arises out of a reaction to the lack of opportunity to reach success goals through legitimate channels and the consequent adoption of illegitimate means to achieve them.

8. Cloward and Ohlin – Opportunity Structures Try to explain why delinquent subcultures take different forms – why some are mainly concerned with theft while others focus on violence. Different social environments provide different opportunities for crime and deviance which in turn encourage the development of different delinquent subcultures.

9. Types of delinquent subcultures – Criminal Subculture Tend to develop in areas where there is a well-established pattern of adult crime. There is an illegitimate opportunity structure. Young men are provided with role models.

10. Types of delinquent subcultures – Conflict Subculture Tends to develop in areas where an illegitimate opportunity structure is absent, there is a high population turnover and a low level of social cohesion. Little opportunity to succeed by either legitimate or illegitimate means. Young men become frustrated and angry. Respond with gang violence which gives them the opportunity to gain status from other gang members.

11. Types of delinquent subcultures – Retreatist Subculture Tends to emerge among those who have failed to succeed either by legitimate means or as members of either criminal or conflict subcultures. ‘Double failures’ Form retreatist subcultures based on illegal drugs.

12. Evaluation Develops Merton’s and Cohen’s theories. Show that working-class delinquency is not simply concerned with material gain. Give explanations for a number of different subcultures. Tend to ignore overlaps between subcultures eg gangs involved in conflict subcultures often deal in drugs.

13. How Useful are Subcultural Explanations British evidence suggests structured gangs with a definite and enduring membership are unusual. Most delinquent acts are committed by small, transient loosely structured friendship groups.

14. Matza and Sykes Delinquent subcultures imply working- class youths are committed to gangs. They point out that most working-class youths do not engage in criminal activity regularly and those who do give it up in early adulthood.

15. Matza and Sykes Most working-class youths do not engage in criminal activity. Adolescents of all classes are members of a leisure class. Leisure activities involve a search for excitement and adventure to demonstrate their masculinity.

16. Evaluation Subterranean values exist side by side with other values but are only expressed in certain situations eg football Young people attach greater importance on subterranean values, they have more leisure time. If they break the law there is added excitement. They emphasise the similarity between delinquents and young people in general.

17. Parker (1974) and Corrigan (1981) Portray working-class adolescent delinquency as much less structured and systematic. Their studies showed that working-class youths used delinquency to inject some action into their leisure which frequently involved hanging around

18. McRobbie and Garber Found girls’ teenage activities reflected what was expected of them. Spent their time in appropriately ‘feminine’ persuits. Concerned with being attractive and sexy and getting a boy.