1. © 2005 Jones and Bartlett Publishers Chapter 18 How Genes Work and How Genes are Controlled

2. Section 18-1 DNA and RNA: Macromolecules with a Mission DNA consists of a double helix held together by hydrogen bonds. –Each strand of the double helix contains nucleotides. –Each nucleotide in the DNA molecule consists of a purine or pyrimidine base, the sugar deoxyribose, and a phosphate group. –The nucleotides are joined by covalent bonds between phosphate groups and deoxyribose molecules.

3. Section 18-1 Figure 18-1 DNA

4. Section 18-1 –Complementary base pairing is an unalterable coupling in which adenine on one strand of the DNA molecule always binds to thymine on the other and guanine always binds to cytosine. –Complementary base pairing ensures accurate replication of the DNA accurate transmission of genetic information from one cell to another and from one generation to another.

5. DNA unwinds then serves as a template for the production of new DNA strands. –DNA polymerase is an enzyme that helps align and pair nucleotides to the template strand. Section 18-1

6. Figure 18-3 DNA Replication Section 18-1

7. Three types of RNA exist, each of which is involved in protein synthesis: –Transfer RNA –Ribosomal RNA –Messenger RNA. All three RNA molecules are single-stranded polynucleotide chains. Section 18-1

8. RNA synthesis is called transcription and takes place on a DNA template in the nucleus of the cell. Section 18-1 Figure 18-6

9. Section 18-2 How Genes Work: Protein Synthesis Protein is synthesized on a mRNA template. – This process is called translation. – The genetic information contained in the DNA molecule is transferred to messenger RNA. – Messenger RNA molecules carry this information to the cytoplasm, where proteins are synthesized. – Messenger RNA serves as a template for protein synthesis. – Ribosomes are required to produce proteins on the mRNA template.

10. –Transfer RNA molecules deliver amino acid molecules to the mRNA and insert them in the growing chain. –Each tRNA binds to a specific amino acid and delivers it to a specific codon, a sequence of three bases on the mRNA. –The sequence of codons determines the sequence of amino acids in the protein. –Messenger RNA serves as a template for protein synthesis. Section 18-2

11. –Proteins are synthesized by adding one amino acid at a time. –During protein synthesis, the ribosome first attaches to the mRNA at the initiator codon. –Soon after, the large subunit attaches. –A specific tRNA bound to an amino acid binds to the initiator codon and the first binding site of the ribosome. –A second tRNA–amino acid then enters the second site. Section 18-2

12. –An enzyme in the ribosome catalyzes the formation of a peptide bond between the two amino acids. –After the bond is formed, the first tRNA (minus its amino acid) leaves the first binding site. Section 18-2

13. Figure 18-10 Protein Synthesis Section 18-2

14. –The ribosome moves down the mRNA, shifting the tRNA bound to its two amino acids to the first binding site and opening the second site for another tRNA–amino acid. –This process repeats itself many times in rapid succession. Section 18-2

15. As the peptide chain is formed, hydrogen bonds begin to form between the amino acids, and the chain begins to bend and twist, forming the secondary structure of the protein or peptide. When the ribosome reaches the terminator codon, the peptide chain is released. Section 18-2

16. Section 18-3 Controlling Gene Expression In humans, genetic expression is controlled at four levels: –At the chromosome—access to the genes is controlled by coiling and uncoiling of the chromosome during interphase. –At transcription—three control mechanisms operate at the level of transcription: Induction Repression Enhancement –After transcription but before translation—by altering the structure of mRNA. –At translation—by masking mRNA

17. Figure 18-12 Gene Expression Section 18-3

18. Section 18-4 Health and Homeostasis Humans and other organisms contain proto- oncogenes, which control functions related to cellular replication. Mutations in these genes caused by chemical, physical, biological agents, or viruses may cause cancer.