1. Chapter 9 Motivation and Emotion

2. Chapter Preview Theories of Motivation Hunger and Sex
Approaches to Motivation in Everyday Life
Emotion
The Pursuit of Happiness

3. Theories of Motivation
Motivation as force that moves people to behave, think, and feel as they do
Evolutionary Approach
Drive Reduction Theory
Optimal Arousal Theory

4. Evolutionary Approach
Ethology
Study of animal behavior
Instinct
Innate (unlearned) biological pattern of behavior assumed to be universal throughout species
Set in motion by a sign stimulus
Motivations for sex, aggression, achievement may be rooted in evolutionary past

5. Drive Reduction Theory
Motivation is to reduce drives
Drive
Aroused state that occurs due to physiological need
Need
Deprivation that energizes drive to reduce or eliminate that deprivation
Homeostasis
Body’s tendency to maintain equilibrium

6. Optimum Arousal Theory
Yerkes-Dodson Law
Performance best under conditions of moderate arousal, rather than low or high arousal
Low arousal
Too lethargic to perform tasks well
High arousal
May not be able to concentrate

7. Biology of Hunger Gastric Signals Blood Chemistry Brain Processes
Stomach contractions
Cholecystokinin (CCK)
Blood Chemistry
Glucose
Insulin
Leptin
Brain Processes
Lateral Hypothalamus
Ventromedial Hypothalamus

8. Obesity Biology of Obesity Psychological Factors in Hunger and Obesity
Genetic component
Set point
Weight maintained when no effort made to gain or lose weight
Psychological Factors in Hunger and Obesity
Emotional state and external stimuli
Time and place associations
Taste preferences based on past scarcity of reliable food sources

9. Biology of Sex Brain areas Sex hormones Hypothalamus Cerebral Cortex
Limbic System
Activated by neurotransmitters and sex hormones
Sex hormones
Estrogen (females)
Androgens (males)

10. Human Sexual Response Pattern
Excitement Phase
Begins process of erotic responsiveness
Plateau Phase
Continuation and heightening of arousal
Orgasm
Explosive discharge of neuromuscular tension
Resolution Phase
Return of blood vessels to normal state
Refractory period in males

11. Other Factors in Sex Cognitive Factors Sensory/Perceptual Factors
Cognitive capacity to think about sex and about others
Sexual Scripts
Stereotyped patterns of expectancies for how people should behave sexually
Sensory/Perceptual Factors
Touch
Vision
Cultural Factors
Sex as normal/desirable, or as abnormal/unappealing

12. Sexual Behavior Kinsey Research (1948)
Lots of wild sex, but in non-representative sample
Michael’s ‘Sex in America’ Survey (1994)
Sexual lives more ordinary than previously believed
Differences between males and females
Thoughts, feelings, attitudes, behaviors
Sex Education Programs
Generally more effective than abstinence-only programs

13. Sexual Orientation Direction of erotic interests
Heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual
Construct may ignore potential flexibility of human sexual attraction and behavior
Combination of genetic, hormonal, cognitive, and environmental factors
Attitudes in society generally more positive

14. Motivation in Everyday Life
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Human Needs
Self-Determination Theory
Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation
Self-Regulation

15. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Sequence of needs to satisfy
Strongest needs at base, weakest at top
Lower needs reflect deficiencies
Self-actualization
Motivation to develop full potential as human being
Highest and most elusive need
Ordering of needs may be debatable

16. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

17. Self-Determination Theory
Three basic, innate organismic needs
Competence
Able to bring about desired outcomes
Self-efficacy and mastery
Relatedness
Need to engage in warm relation with others
Autonomy
Sense of control of own life
Individualistic vs. Collectivistic Cultures

18. Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation
Based on internal factors
May have more positive outcomes
Extrinsic Motivation
Includes external incentives
May diminish intrinsic motivation
Successful individuals may be both intrinsically and extrinsically motivated.

19. Self-Regulation
Process of effortfully controlling behavior in order to pursue important objectives (goals)
Getting feedback as a key aspect
Daily mood as a way of receiving feedback
Setting goals
Concrete and specific goals
Long-term vs. short-term goals
Planning for implementation
Monitoring progress

20. Emotion Feeling, or affect, that can involve . . . Biological Factors
Physiological arousal
Conscious experience
Behavioral expression
Biological Factors
Cognitive Factors
Behavioral Factors
Sociocultural Factors

21. Biological Factors: Arousal
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
Messages to/from body’s internal organs
Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS)
Involved in body’s arousal
Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS)
Calms body
Measuring Arousal
Skin Conductance Level (SCL)
Polygraph, or Lie Detector

22. Autonomic Nervous System

23. Theories of Emotion James-Lange Theory Cannon-Bard Theory
Stimulus  Physiological Reaction  Emotion
Each emotion has distinct set of physiological changes
Cannon-Bard Theory
Stimulus  Physiological Reaction & Emotion
Different emotions could not be associated with specific physiological changes

24. Theories of Emotion

25. Neural Circuits & Neurotransmitters
Limbic System: Amygdala
Plays central role in fear
Receives neurons from senses, sends messages to organs
Linked with emotional memories
Also participates in positive emotions
Cerebral hemispheres work differently in positive and negative emotions.
Neurotransmitters in neural pathways of emotion
Endorphins, dopamine, norepinephrine

26. Cognitive Factors Two-Factor Theory of Emotion
Schachter & Singer (1962)
Emotion = Physiological Arousal + Cognitive Labeling
Capilano River Bridge Study
Dutton & Aron, 1974
Misinterpreted arousal intensifies emotional experiences

27. Two-Factor Theory of Emotion

28. Primacy: Cognition or Emotion?
Lazarus (1991)
Cognitive activity (appraisals of self and social circumstances) as precondition for emotion
Zajonc (1984)
Thoughts as a result of emotion
“Preferences need no inferences.”
Both are likely correct.
Lazarus, about clusters of related events over time
Zajonc, about single events or simple preferences

29. Behavioral Factors Verbal or nonverbal
Facial expressions as reflecting emotion
Facial Feedback Hypothesis
Facial expressions as influencing emotion
Signals to brain from facial muscles to help recognize emotion being experienced

30. Sociocultural Factors
Culture
Facial expressions of basic emotions as universal
Display Rules
Sociocultural standards determining when, where, how emotions should be expressed
Gender Influences
Men and women more alike in ways of experiencing emotion than stereotypes suggest
May be a difference in emotional intelligence

31. Classifying Emotions Valence Arousal Level Circumplex model of emotion
Whether emotion feels pleasant or unpleasant
Negative Affect
Negative emotions, such as anger, guilt, sadness
Positive Affect
Positive emotions, such as joy, happiness, interest
Arousal Level
Degree to which emotion is reflected in being active, engaged, or excited
Circumplex model of emotion

32. Circumplex Model of Mood

33. Adaptive Functions of Emotions
Negative emotions carry direct and immediate adaptive benefits for survival.
Broaden-and-Build Model
Function of positive emotions in effects on attention and ability to build resources
Resilience
Associated with capacity to thrive during difficult times
Ability to bounce back from negative experiences

34. The Pursuit of Happiness
Biological Factors
Heritability estimates range from 50% to 80%
May be a happiness set point
Obstacles
Hedonic Treadmill
Adapting to changes that influence happiness
Pursuing happiness as a goal
Happiness Activities & Goal Striving
Activities associated with enhanced positive emotion
Commitment to pursuit of personally meaningful goals