1. 1 What happens to the location estimator if we minimize with a power other that 2? Robert J. Blodgett Statistic Seminar - March 13, 2008

2. Outline 1. Affect of different exponents 2. Definition 3. End points of the path 4. Repeated exponents 5. Bounds 6. Directions of the path 7. Outliers

3. When data points come from a symmetric unimodal distribution, the clear location estimator is the maximum. Different exponents are compared for three such distributions. For each exponent, 10,000 simulations had 20 points each. The curves show number of simulations within ¼, ½, and 1 of the maximum, 0. 1. Affect of different exponents

4. Uniform on (-5, 5)

5. Normal – N(0, 1)

6. Double Exponential

7. The l p -norm estimator minimizes the following sum as m(p) changes with x k  …  x 1. 2. Definition

8. for 1< p < ∞

9. Setting the derivative with respect to m(p) equal to zero gives. Expression (1)

10. Why can we take a derivative? Since p > 1, the limit equals 0.

11. As m(p) increases, each term in expression (1) decreases. Hence, for each exponent, there is a unique minimizing m(p). The minimizing point varies continuously with the exponent. The next step is to locate the end points.

12. The limit median is the limit of the minimizing points as the exponent approaches 1. Properties: (1) For an odd number of data point or when the middle two are equal, the middle one is the limit median. (2) Otherwise, the limit median is between the two middle data points. 3. End points of the path

13. D. Jackson (1921), “Notes on the median of a set of numbers,” Bul. Amer. Mathemat. Soc. 27, pp. 160-164. Pair the jth and (K-j+1)st points. Let x L denote the lower point and x U the upper point. The limit median is at the solution to

14. o The following bound shows how to assign the minimum when the exponent approaches infinity. The minimum and the midrange are within where R denotes the range and K > 1.

15. When the exponent approaches 1, the term in parenthesis approaches 1. Consequently, this bound would include all the data points then. When exponent approaches infinity, this term approaches zero. Consequently, the minimizing point approaches the midrange as the exponent approaches infinity.

16. As an example, a path is constructed for the data set with the five points 0, 0, 2, 2.1, and 4.

17. For how many exponents can have the same minimum? 4. Repeated Exponents

18. Let a j =  sign (x j – m) and b j = |x j -m| where the sum is over all points the same distance from m. The following theorem bounds the number of repartitions.

19. If (1) each a j is a non-zero, real number and (2) b N >…> b 1 > 0, then the number of changes in sign of the a j -values is greater than or equal to the number of x-values where  a j b j x equals zero. The following proof is similar to one in Laguerre (1883).

20. Proof. (By induction on the number of changes in sign.) If there are no changes in sign, then no x-value makes the sum zero. For the induction step assume the a j - values have C changes in sign and the result holds for any exponential sum with fewer changes in sign. Let a 1 to a w all have the same sign and let a w+1 have the opposite sign.

22. Since b N >…> b 1 > 0, when j > w, log(b j /b w ) > 0. Thus, for j > w, the jth coefficient of this derivative has the same sign as a j. When j < w, log(b j /b w ) < 0. Thus, for j < w, the jth coefficient of this derivative has the opposite sign from a j. Hence, the sign no longer changes at j = w. Therefore, the coefficients of this derivative have at most C – 1 changes in sign. By the induction hypothesis, this derivative has at most C – 1 x-values where it equals 0. By Rolles theorem, the original sum can have at most C x-values where it equals 0. ■

23. A similar proof of Descartes’ rule of signs works for polynomials. Exponential sums and polynomial like sums where the exponents maybe any real numbers are closely related. Let u j = (log b j )/(log b 1 ) and y = (b 1 ) x.

24. Repeated exponents also has been disguised as a number theory problem. One example from number theory is the following equalities for j = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5. 1 j + 12 j + 21 j + 43 j + 52 j + 63 j = 3 j + 7 j + 28 j + 36 j + 57 j + 61 j Notice that there are 6 changes in sign.

25. 5. Bounds Order the data points and let c j = (x j + x K-j+1 )/2. Let c- = minimum c j and c+ = maximum c j. For all p in (1, ∞), m(p) is in [c-, c+].

26. Proof. When m > c j, x j – m is negative and |x j – m|  |x K-j+1 – m|. Thus, the contribution of this pair to expression (1) is negative. When m is greater than all c j -values, the contribution from each pair is negative (including the median if K is odd.) Thus, expression (1) is not zero. Similarly if m less than all c j. ■

27. It also follows that 1) If c- < c+, then m(p) is in (c-, c+) for all p in (1, ∞ ). 2) The limit median is in [c-, c+]. 3) The Winsorized mean and the usual median are both in [c-, c+]. The following graphs show the ratio of the actual length of an interval covered divided by c+ - c-. The curves show the number out of 10,000 simulations with points from N(0, 1) below.5,.7, and.9.

28. Even size groups

29. Odd size groups The extra curve is for the number below 1.

30. In the example of data set 0, 0, 2, 2.1, and 4, the pairs of data points are as follows. First, 0 and 4 with average 2; next, 0 and 2.1 with average 1.05; and finally 2. Consequently, (c-, c+) = (1.05, 2). Any minimum in this interval has at most 2 exponents.

31. The next two results contain the idea that once the high or low terms dominate the expression, they will continue to dominate it. 1. If (1) each a j is a non-zero, real number, (2) b K >…> b 1 > 0, and (3)for s = 1, …, K, then > 0 for x  q.

32. 2. If (1) each a j is a non-zero, real number, (2) b K >…> b 1 > 0, and (3)for s = 1, …, K, then > 0 for 0 < x  q.

33. 6. Directions of the path For p in (1, ∞ ), direct calculations give Taking the sign gives the direction the estimate moves. From the directions, iteration gives the points where the path turns.

34. The following result helps find the direction at p = 1 or infinity. Let S denote the entire data set and M its minimizing point at p. Let S* denote the data set with x j omitted and M* its minimizing point at p. If S has more than one data point and p is in (1, ∞ ), then (1) M > x j if and only if M* > x j, (2) M = x j if and only if M* = x j, and (3) M < x j if and only if M* < x j.

35. For the exponent at infinity the following result gives the direction of approach. If (1) the c j -values are not all identical and (2) c F denotes the average of the pair with the largest range whose average does not equal c 1, then for sufficiently large p both m(p) and c F are on the same side of c 1. A similar result holds when near p = 1 when K is odd or the middle two data points are equal.

36. When K is even and the middle two data points are different, the following expression can indicate the direction at the limit median.

37. The example data set has a turning point at an exponent of 2.12. There is at most two exponents for each value of the estimator.

38. 7. Outliers This section contains two graphs of simulation results. Six data points were taken from a N(0, 1). After calculating their location estimator, an outlier was added. The location estimator was recalculated. At each exponent, the number of the 10,000 simulations with differences below 1/8, 1/4 and 1/2 are shown.

39. Outlier at 2.

40. Outlier at 3 The extra curve is for differences below 1.