1. Page 1 Mutual Exclusion & Election Algorithms Paul Krzyzanowski pxk@cs.rutgers.edu ds@pk.org Distributed Systems Except as otherwise noted, the content of this presentation is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 License.

2. Page 2 Process Synchronization Techniques to coordinate execution among processes –One process may have to wait for another –Shared resource (e.g. critical section) may require exclusive access

3. Page 3 Centralized Systems Mutual exclusion via: –Test & set in hardware –Semaphores –Messages –Condition variables

4. Page 4 Distributed Mutual Exclusion Assume there is agreement on how a resource is identified –Pass identifier with requests Create an algorithm to allow a process to obtain exclusive access to a resource.

5. Page 5 Centralized algorithm Mimic single processor system One process elected as coordinator P C request(R) grant(R) 1. Request resource 2. Wait for response 3. Receive grant 4. access resource 5. Release resource release(R)

6. Page 6 Centralized algorithm If another process claimed resource: –Coordinator does not reply until release –Maintain queue Service requests in FIFO order P0P0 C request(R) grant(R) release(R) P1P1 P2P2 request(R) Queue P1P1 request(R) P2P2 grant(R)

7. Page 7 Centralized algorithm Benefits Fair –All requests processed in order Easy to implement, understand, verify Problems Process cannot distinguish being blocked from a dead coordinator Centralized server can be a bottleneck

8. Page 8 Token Ring algorithm Assume known group of processes –Some ordering can be imposed on group –Construct logical ring in software –Process communicates with neighbor P0P0 P1P1 P2P2 P3P3 P4P4 P5P5

9. Page 9 Token Ring algorithm Initialization –Process 0 gets token for resource R Token circulates around ring –From P i to P (i+1) mod N When process acquires token –Checks to see if it needs to enter critical section –If no, send ring to neighbor –If yes, access resource Hold token until done P0P0 P1P1 P2P2 P3P3 P4P4 P5P5 token(R)

10. Page 10 Token Ring algorithm Only one process at a time has token –Mutual exclusion guaranteed Order well-defined –Starvation cannot occur If token is lost (e.g. process died) –It will have to be regenerated Does not guarantee FIFO order –sometimes this is undesirable

11. Page 11 Ricart & Agrawala algorithm Distributed algorithm using reliable multicast and logical clocks Process wants to enter critical section: –Compose message containing: Identifier (machine ID, process ID) Name of resource Timestamp (totally-ordered Lamport) –Send request to all processes in group –Wait until everyone gives permission –Enter critical section / use resource

12. Page 12 Ricart & Agrawala algorithm When process receives request: –If receiver not interested: Send OK to sender –If receiver is in critical section Do not reply; add request to queue –If receiver just sent a request as well: Compare timestamps: received & sent messages Earliest wins If receiver is loser, send OK If receiver is winner, do not reply, queue When done with critical section –Send OK to all queued requests

13. Page 13 Ricart & Agrawala algorithm N points of failure A lot of messaging traffic Demonstrates that a fully distributed algorithm is possible

14. Page 14 Lamport’s Mutual Exclusion Each process maintains request queue –Contains mutual exclusion requests Requesting critical section: –Process P i sends request(i, T i ) to all nodes –Places request on its own queue –When a process P j receives a request, it returns a timestamped ack Lamport time

15. Page 15 Lamport’s Mutual Exclusion Entering critical section (accessing resource) : –P i received a message (ack or release) from every other process with a timestamp larger than T i –P i ’s request has the earliest timestamp in its queue Difference from Ricart-Agrawala: –Everyone responds … always - no hold-back –Process decides to go based on whether its request is the earliest in its queue

16. Page 16 Lamport’s Mutual Exclusion Releasing critical section: –Remove request from its own queue –Send a timestamped release message –When a process receives a release message Removes request for that process from its queue This may cause its own entry have the earliest timestamp in the queue, enabling it to access the critical section

17. Page 17 Election algorithms

18. Page 18 Elections Need one process to act as coordinator Processes have no distinguishing characteristics Each process can obtain a unique ID

19. Page 19 Bully algorithm Select process with largest ID as coordinator When process P detects dead coordinator: –Send election message to all processes with higher IDs. If nobody responds, P wins and takes over. If any process responds, P’s job is done. –Optional: Let all nodes with lower IDs know an election is taking place. If process receives an election message –Send OK message back –Hold election (unless it is already holding one)

20. Page 20 Bully algorithm A process announces victory by sending all processes a message telling them that it is the new coordinator If a dead process recovers, it holds an election to find the coordinator.

21. Page 21 Ring algorithm Ring arrangement of processes If any process detects failure of coordinator –Construct election message with process ID and send to next process –If successor is down, skip over –Repeat until a running process is located Upon receiving an election message –Process forwards the message, adding its process ID to the body

22. Page 22 Ring algorithm Eventually message returns to originator –Process sees its ID on list –Circulates (or multicasts) a coordinator message announcing coordinator E.g. lowest numbered process

23. Page 23 Problems with elections Network segmentation –Split brain Rely on alternate communication mechanism –Redundant network, shared disk, serial line, SCSI

24. Page 24 The end.