1. Chapter 23: Land Empires in the Age of Imperialism, 1800-1870

2. Egypt and the Napoleonic Example
Modernization and Expansion in Egypt
Napoleon took over Egypt and left his generals in charge to run the country
Following Napoleon’s withdrawal from Egypt in 1801, Muhammad Ali ruled Egypt from 1805 to 1848
He began the political, social, and economic reforms that created modern Egypt

3. Muhammad Ali

4. Ali’s main goal was to give Egypt the military strength needed to prevent another European conquest
He made use of European experts and techniques to accomplish that goal
Set up a European style state school system and opened a military college
Peasants were required to cultivate cotton and other crops for export
By the 1830’s, Egypt had become the strongest state in the Islamic world
The technical expertise of the West was combined with Islamic religious and cultural traditions

5. The Ottoman Empire and the European Model (pg. 675)

6. Introduction
In the 1800s, the Ottoman Empire sought to remove the influence of religious elites over the state and the economy
Created a practical base for the creation of a Turkish republic in the twentieth century

7. Early Struggles for Reform (1793 – 1807)
Reforms brought about by Sultan Selim III during this time were failures because of the large influence held by the conservative Janissaries (elite Ottoman warriors, originally Christian slaves)

8. Janissaries often led revolts within the Ottoman Empire
Example: In Serbia, Janissaries were able to create an independent state after disobeying the sultan’s direct orders
Some Ottoman nobles also opposed reform, as it likely meant that new taxes would be placed on them
Eventually, Selim III was executed

9. Army and Society in the Early Tanzimat (1826 – 1853)
In 1826, Selim III’s cousin, Sultan Mahmud II revived the reform movement
Saw that reform needed to be done more forcefully
Used the loss of Greece as an example of Ottoman weakness and the need for change

10. Greek independence in 1829 was a complex event that had dramatic international significance
The Ottoman’s viewed the ability to control Greece and Anatolia (modern day Turkey) as a sign of God’s favor
Europeans and Russians saw the capture of Constantinople as a justification for a new holy war against the Ottoman Empire
Renewed interest in the classical age of Greece and Rome during the 19th century led to direct European support for the Greek independence movement

11. Mahmud II saw that his empire was much weaker than those of Europe
He attempted to destroy the Janissaries in 1826
Reduced the political power of the religious elite, attempted to secularize the empire

12. The Tanzimat (restructuring) was a series of reforms announced by Mahmud’s son and successor, Abdul Mejid, in 1839
A proclamation of basic political rights, similar to England’s “Magna Carta”
Public trials and equal protection under the law regardless of religion
New methods of military conscription and tax collecting
Closest thing to a constitution that any Islamic country had

13. Military reforms took on a very European approach
Cadets were sent to France and Germany to train
Military uniforms were modeled after the French
European instructors taught at the school of military sciences

14. Other education reforms soon followed
In 1838 the first medical school was created for army doctors and surgeons
A national system of preparatory schools was created
Because of these European style changes, French became a prominent language among well-educated people

15. The Crimean War
Since the reign of Peter the Great, Russia had been trying to expand southward at the expense of the Ottoman Empire
Russia was poised to seize territory in the Balkans/Eastern Europe

16. The Crimean War lasted between 1853 and 1856
Primarily a war between Russia and the Ottomans but it also involved other European nations, fearing a more powerful Russian Empire
The British and French navies were able to trap the Russian navy in the Black Sea
A lack of railroads hurt Russia’s abilities to supply its forces

17. A formal alliance between Britain, France, & the Ottoman Empire blocked Russian expansion into Eastern Europe & the Middle East
The Crimean War brought significant changes to all the combatants
In Russia, the tsar and his government were discredited, leading to reforms that damaged the nation’s political stability
In Britain and France, massive propaganda campaigns were launched during the war in order to draw support

19. In the 1830s and 1840s, rifle technology improved greatly
The Crimean War marked the transition from traditional to modern warfare
These nations prided themselves on their effective use of highly trained cavalry to smash through the front lines of infantry
Early rifles were awkward to load, vulnerable to explosion, and not very accurate
In the 1830s and 1840s, rifle technology improved greatly
Percussion caps allowed guns to be fired without being ignited by hand
Breech-loading rifles were quicker to load and more accurate than older guns

20. In wars after this time period, machine guns became a common instrument of war
Resulted in a new scale of battlefield fatalities, hundreds of thousands over only a few years
Railways allowed these large guns to be easily moved to the frontlines

21. The transformation of decisive weaponry meant a change in the general ways of war
Heavy cavalry becomes less important
Light, accurate firearms were emphasized
Infantry units pinned each other down in trenches for weeks, waiting for the enemy to be wiped out by disease or despair
Long range artillery, mines, hand grenades, and mustard gas all became commonly used during this time
Soldiers were taught to shoot from behind barriers and began wearing inconspicuous colors that made them harder to shoot
The military began to lose its connection with the aristocracy, horses, and ceremonial uniforms