1. Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. Nonferrous Metals and Alloys: Production, General Properties, and Applications

2. 6.1 Introduction6.1 Introduction Nonferrous metals and alloys cover Common metals such as aluminum, copper, and magnesium. High-strength high-temperature alloys such as those of tungsten, tantalum, and molybdenum. Mg alloys Ni alloys Super alloys Non-ferrous Metal Alloys Ferrous Cu alloys Pure Cu Brasses Bronzes Cupronickel Be-copper Nickel silver Al alloys Alloying Elements Cu Mg Mn Si Zn Alloying Elements Al Zn Mn V Refractory metals Nb (2468  C) Ta (2996  C) W (3410  C) Mo (2617  C) Fe-based Ni-based Co-based Monel Inconel Hastealloy

3. Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. Cost of Wrought Metals and Plastics vs. Carbon Steel More expensive than ferrous metals (Table 6.1)

4. Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. Nonferrous Metals and Alloys Major applications because of properties (Table 6.2)

5. Typical examples of the applications: Aluminum for cooking utensils and aircraft bodies, Copper wire for electricity, Zinc for galvanized sheet metals for car bodies, Titanium for jet-engine turbine blades and for orthopedic implants, and Tantalum for rocket engines. A turbofan jet engine for Boeing 757 aircraft typically contains the following nonferrous metals and alloys: 38% Ti, 37% Ni, 12% Cr, 6% Co, 5% Al, 1% Nb, 0.02% Ta Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. 6.1 Introduction6.1 Introduction

6. Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. Jet Engine Cross-Section Figure 6.1 Cross-section of a jet engine (PW2037) showing various components and the alloys used in manufacturing them. Source: Courtesy of United Aircraft Pratt & Whitney.

7. 6.2 Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys6.2 Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys Aluminum (Al) is the most abundant metallic element (8% crust). The important factors in selecting aluminum and its alloys are: High strength-to-weight ratio, Resistant to corrosion, appearance, High thermal and electrical conductivity, Nonmagnetic, Ease of formability and machinability. Most recyclable metal - only 5% of production energy required The principal uses (in decreasing order of consumption) are In containers and packaging (Al cans and foil) Buildings and other types of constructions, Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

8. Transportation (aircraft and aerospace vehicles, buses, automobiles, …). About 82% of a Boeing 747 aircraft and 70% of a Boeing 777 aircraft is aluminum. Consumer durables (appliances, cooking utensils, furniture,…) Electrical applications (wires, nonmagnetic electrical conductors,…). Nearly all high-voltage transmission wiring is made of aluminum The main alloying elements in aluminum alloys are copper, zinc, magnesium, silicon, manganese and lithium. Aluminum alloys are available as wrought and cast alloys, both of which are further subdivided into the categories heat-treatable and non-heat-treatable. Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. 6.2 Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys

9. 6.2.1 Wrought Aluminum Alloys6.2.1 Wrought Aluminum Alloys Wrought aluminum alloys are available as mill products initially cast as ingots or billets and subsequently hot and/or cold worked mechanically into the desired form. For example: Rolling to produce sheet, foil or plate. Extrusion and drawing to produce profiles, tubes or rods. Forming to produce more complex shapes from rolled or extruded stock. Forging to produce complex shapes with superior mechanical properties. There are two types wrought aluminum alloys (as shown) Alloys that can be hardened by cold working (Non-heat-treatable). Alloys that can be hardened by heat treatment (heat-treatable). Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

10. Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. 6.2.1 Wrought Aluminum Alloys

11. Alloys of 1xxx, 3xxx, 4xxx and 5xxx series are non-heat-treatable. The initial strength of these alloys is achieved due to the hardening effect of the alloying elements: manganese (Mn), silicon (Si), magnesium (Mg). Additional hardening of these alloys is done by cold work (strain hardening). Non-heat-treatable alloys are ductile and moderately strong. These alloys are supplied either in O condition (annealed) or in H condition (cold worked at various degrees). Alloys of 2xxx, 6xxx and 7xxx series are heat-treatable. The initial strength of these alloys is achieved due to the hardening effect of the alloying elements: copper (Cu), silicon (Si), magnesium (Mg) and zinc (Zn). Since solubility of these elements in solid aluminum depends on the temperature, it is possible to harden the alloys from this group by a heat treatment, called precipitation hardening (age hardening). Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. 6.2.1 Wrought Aluminum Alloys

12. Designation of wrought aluminum alloys wrought aluminum alloys are identified by 4 digits and by a temper designation (the condition of the material). The first digit indicates the major alloying elements. 1xxx – Commercially pure aluminum (99.0% minimum) - not heat treatable: excellent corrosion resistance, high electrical and thermal conductivity, good workability, low strength. 2xxx - Copper (1.9%...6.8%) - heat treatable: high-strength-to-weight ratio, low resistance to corrosion. 3xxx - Manganese (0.3%...1.5%) - not heat treatable: good workability, moderate strength, generally. 4xxx - Silicon (3.6%...13.5%) - not heat treatable: lower melting point, forms an oxide film. 5xxx - Magnesium (0.5%...5.5%) - not heat treatable: good corrosion resistance and weldability, moderate to high strength. 6xxx - Magnesium and Silicon (Mg 0.4%...1.5%, Si 0.2%...1.7%) - heat treatable: medium strength, good formability, machinability, weldability, and corrosion resistance. 7xxx - Zinc (1%...8.2%) - heat treatable: moderate to very high strength. 8xxx – Other element. Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

13. The second digit indicates modifications of the alloy or impurity limits. Original (basic) alloy is designated by “0” as the second digit. Numbers 1…9 indicate various alloy modifications with slight differences in the compositions (indicate special control of one or more impurities or alloying element). The last two digits: In 1xxx series the last two digits indicate the minimum amount of aluminum in the alloy: 1070 or 1170 mean minimum 99.70% of aluminum in the alloys, 1050 or 1250 mean 99.50% of aluminum in the alloys, 1100 or 1200 mean minimum 99.00% of aluminum in the alloys. In all other series (2xxx through 8xxx) the last two digits identify the different alloys in the group and have no numerical significance. Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. Designation of wrought aluminum alloys

14. Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

15. 6.2.2 Cast Aluminum Alloys Cast aluminum alloys are directly cast into their final form by one of various casting methods. The following casting methods are applicable for casting aluminum alloys: sand casting, permanent mold casting, die casting, investment casting, centrifugal casting, squeeze casting and continuous casting. Casting is used for complex product shapes. Many of these alloys contain high levels of silicon to improve their cast ability. Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

16. Designation of cast aluminum alloys each cast alloy is designated by a four digit number with a decimal point separating the third and the forth digits. The first digit indicates the alloy group according to the major alloying element: 1xx.x - Aluminum (99.0% minimum); 2xx.x - Copper (4%...4.6%) - Heat-treatable: high strength; low corrosion resistance; low fluidity; low ductility; susceptible to hot cracks. Applications: Cylinder heads for automotive and aircraft engines, pistons for diesel engines, exhausting system parts. 3xx.x - Silicon (5%...17%) with added copper and/or magnesium - Heat- treatable: high strength; low ductility; good wear resistance; decreased corrosion resistance (in copper containing alloys); good fluidity; good machinability (in copper containing alloys). Applications: Automotive cylinder blocks and head, car wheels, aircraft fittings, casings and other parts of compressors and pumps. Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

17. 4xx.x - Silicon (5%...12%) - Non-heat-treatable: moderate strength; moderate ductility; good wear resistance; very good cast properties; good corrosion resistance. Applications: Pump casings, thin wall castings, cookware. 5xx.x - Magnesium (4%...10%) - Non-heat-treatable; high corrosion resistance; good machinability; good appearance when anodized; moderate cast properties. Applications: sand cast parts 6xx.x – Unused series. 7xx.x - Zinc (6.2%...7.5%) - Heat-treatable: good dimensional stability; good corrosion resistance; poor cast properties; good machinability (in copper containing alloys). 8xx.x – Tin - Non-heat-treatable: low strength; very good wear resistance; good machinability. 9xx.x - others. Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. Designation of cast aluminum alloys

18. The second and third digits: In 1xx.x series the second and third digits indicate the level of purity of the alloy – they are the same as the two digits to the right of the decimal point in the minimum concentration of aluminum (in percentage): 150.0 means minimum 99.50% of aluminum in the alloy, 120.1 means minimum 99.20% of aluminum in the alloy. In all other series (2xx.x through 9xx.x) the second and third digits signify different alloys in the group and have no numerical significance. The last digit (to the right of the decimal point) indicates the product form: casting (designated by “0”) or ingot (designated by “1” or “2” depending on chemical composition limits. Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. Designation of cast aluminum alloys

19. Temper designation: Aluminum alloys are tempered by heat-treating or strain-hardening to further increase strength beyond the strengthening effect of adding alloying elements. The temper designation follows the cast or wrought designation number with a dash, a letter, and potentially a one to three digit number, e.g. 6061-T6. The definitions for the tempers are: F - as fabricated (by cold or hot working or by casting) O - Annealed (from the cold worked or cast state) H - strain hardened by cold working (for wrought products only) T - heat treated W- solution treated only (unstable temper) Unified Numbering System (UNS): nonferrous metals and alloys now are identified internationally by the Unified Numbering System: consisting of a letter indicating the general class of the alloy followed by 5 digits indicating its chemical composition. For example: A is for aluminum, C for copper, N for Nickel… In the UNS designation, 2024 wrought aluminum alloy is A92024. Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. Designation of cast aluminum alloys

20. Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. Aluminum Alloy Properties

21. Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. Aluminum Alloy Properties and Applications

22. 6.2.3 Aluminum Production6.2.3 Aluminum Production Aluminum was first produced in 1825. It is produced in a quantity second to that of iron. The principal ore for aluminum is bauxite which is a hydrous (water- containing) aluminum oxide and includes other oxides. Clay and dirt are washed off, then the ore is crushed into powder and treated with hot caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) to remove impurities. Alumina (aluminum oxide) is extracted from this solution and then dissolved in molten sodium-fluoride and aluminum-fluoride bath at 940- 980 o C. This mixture is then subjected to direct-current electrolysis. Aluminum metal forms at the cathode (negative pole), while oxygen is released at the anode (positive pole). Commercially pure aluminum is up to 99.99% (‘4 nines’ aluminum). Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

23. Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. The All Aluminum Audi A8 Figure 6.2 (a) The Audi A8 automobile which has an all- aluminum body structure. (b) The aluminum body structure, showing various components made by extrusion, sheet forming, and casting processes. Source: Courtesy of ALCOA, Inc.

24. 6.3 Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys6.3 Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys Magnesium (Mg) is lightest of all metals. It’s the third most abundant metallic element (2%) in earth’s crust, after iron and aluminum. Mg has good vibration damping characteristics. Magnesium alloys are available either as castings (die-cast camera frame), or as wrought products (extruded bars and shapes, forgings, rolled plate and sheets). Typical uses: aircraft and missile components, bikes, luggage, sporting goods, portable power tools, printing and textile machines… Not sufficiently strong in pure form but alloyed with various elements (Table 6.5) to gain a high strength-to-weight ratio. Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

25. Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. Wrought Magnesium Alloys: Properties and Forms

26. Designation of Magnesium Alloys the designation system uses the following combination of letters and numbers for identification of the alloys The first two letters indicate the principal alloying elements in the alloy according to the following codes: A – Aluminum (Al), C – Copper (Cu), F – Iron (Fe), K – Zirconium (Zr), E – Rare earth elements, B – Bismuth (Bi), D – Cadmium (Cd), M – Manganese (Mn), N – Nickel (Ni), P – Lead (Bb), R – Chromium (Cr), S – Silicon (Si), T – Tin (Sn), Z – Zinc (Zn), H – Thorium (Th). The two letters are followed by two numbers, indicating the concentration of the principal alloying elements and rounded off to nearest decimal. The fifth symbol is a letter of alphabet, signifying the alloy modification (minor variations in composition). Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

27. The alloy code is followed by a designation of temper, following the temper designation system of aluminum alloys: F –As fabricated; O – Annealed; H – Cold worked; T4 – Solution treatment; T5 – Artificial aging; T6 – Solution treatment followed by artificial aging. Example: AZ91C-T6: Principal alloying elements are aluminum (A at 9%) and zinc (Z at 1%). The letter C indicates that this alloy was the third one standardized (later than A, B). T6 indicates that this alloy has been solution treated and artificially aged. Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. Designation of Magnesium Alloys

28. Magnesium Production Most Mg comes from sea water, which contains 0.13% magnesium in the form of magnesium chloride. In the electrolyte method, sea water is mixed with lime (calcium hydroxide) in settling tanks. Magnesium hydroxides precipitates to the bottom, and is filtered and mixed with hydrochloric acid. This solution is subjected to electrolysis; this operation produces magnesium metal, which is then cast into ingots for further processing into various shapes. In the thermal-reduction method, mineral rock containing magnesium is broken down with reducing agents (powdered ferrosilicon), by heating the mixture in a vacuum chamber. As a result of this reaction, vapors of magnesium form, and they condense into magnesium crystals. Crystals are then melted, refined, and poured into ingots to be processed further. Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

29. 6.4 Copper and Copper Alloys6.4 Copper and Copper Alloys First produced in 4000 BC. Copper and it alloys are among the best conductors of electricity and heat, good corrosion resistance, and easily processed by various forming techniques. Pure copper may be used for dies in polymer injection molding (in addition to Al), and as a solid lubricant in hot-metal forming operations. Copper alloys applications include electrical and electronic components, springs, cartridges, plumbing, heat exchangers, and marine equipments. Most common copper alloys are Brass, Bronze, Beryllium copper: Brass (copper and zinc - Table 6.6) has numerous applications including decorative objects. Bronze (copper and tin - Table 6.7) Beryllium bronze and phosphor bronze have good strength and hardness for applications such as springs and bearings. Other major copper alloys are copper nickels and nickel silvers. Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

30. Designation of copper alloys In the UNS, copper is identified with the letter C. For example: Cartilage brass is C26200 replacing the 3-digits numbering CDA 262 (Copper Development Association). Cu alloys are also identified by various commercial names (see Tables). The temper designations are based on percentage reduction by cold working (rolling or drawing): ½ hard; extra hard; extra spring; so on. Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

31. Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. Wrought Copper and Brasses: Properties and Applications

32. Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. Wrought Bronzes: Properties and Applications

33. Copper Production Copper is found in several types of ores, the most common being sulfide ores (15% Cu). The ore first is crushed and then formed into slurry (watery mixture with solid particles). The slurry is ground into fine particles in ball mills. The mineral particles form a froth, which scraped and dried. The dry copper concentrate (1/3 copper) is smelted (melted and fused) and refined with heat – this process is known as pyrometallurgy. The resulting copper may be refined further electrolytically to at least 99.95 copper (used in electrical conductors) (oxygen-free electrolytic copper). A more recent technique for processing copper is hydrometallurgy, a process involving both chemical and electrolytic reactions. Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

34. 6.5 Nickel and Nickel Alloys Nickel (Ni) (discovered in 1751) is a major alloying element to impart strength, toughness, and corrosion resistance. Used extensively in stainless steels and in nickel-based alloys (superalloys). Used in electroplating of parts for their appearance and improving corrosion and wear resistance. Nickel alloys are used in high-temperature applications (jet engine components, nuclear power plants), in food-handling and chemical- processing equipment, in coins, and in marine applications. Nickel alloys are used in electromagnetic application such as solenoids (nickel is magnetic). Alloying elements in nickel are chromium, cobalt, and molybdenum. Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

35. Monel is a nickel-copper alloy. Inconel is a nickel-chromium alloy with a tensile strength of up to 1400 MPa. Hastelloy (also a nickel-chromium alloy) has good corrosion resistance and high strength at elevated temperatures. Nichrome (an alloy of nickel, chromium, and iron) has high electrical resistance and a high resistance to oxidation and is used for electrical heating elements. Invar and Kovar (alloys of iron and nickel) have relatively low sensitivity to temperature (Section 3.6). Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. 6.5 Nickel and Nickel Alloys

36. Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. Nickel Alloy Properties and Applications

37. Designation of Nickel alloys and Nickel Production Although trade names are still used, nickel alloys are now identified in UNS system with the letter N. For example: Hastelloy G is now N06007. Nickel Production Main sources are sulfide and oxide ores (with low concentration of nickel). Ni metal is produced by preliminary sedimentary and thermal processes followed by electrolysis. This sequence yields 99.95% pure nickel Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

38. Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. Nickel-Based Superalloy Properties and Applications

39. 6.7 Titanium and Titanium Alloys6.7 Titanium and Titanium Alloys Titanium (Ti) is a silvery white metal, discovered in 1791 but not produced until 1950s. High cost due to long production process. High strength-to-weight ratio and corrosion resistance at room and elevated temperature make it attractive for application such as: aircraft; jet engines, racing cars, golf clubs, submarines, and armor plates, orthopedic implants (Table 6.10). Alloying elements are aluminum, vanadium, molybdenum, manganese, and other elements impart properties such as improved workability, strength, and hardenability. Titanium alloys developed to serve at 550°C (1800°F) for long periods of time and at up 750°C for shorter periods. Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

40. Titanium Titanium Production Ores containing titanium first are reduced to titanium tetrachloride in arc furnace, and then converted to titanium chloride in a chlorine atmosphere. This compound is reduced further to titanium metal by distillation and leaching (dissolving). This results in sponge titanium which is then pressed into billets, melted, and poured into ingots to be processed later into various shapes Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

41. Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. Wrought Titanium Alloy Properties and Applications

42. 6.8 Refractory Metals and Alloys6.8 Refractory Metals and Alloys Four refractory metals: Molybdenum, Niobium, Tungsten, and Tantalum. Called refractory because of their high melting points. Discovered about 200 years ago. Used in steels and superalloys because they maintain their strength at high temperatures. They are of great importance and use in rocket engines, gas turbine, electronics, chemical industries, and as tool and die materials. Temperature range for some of these applications is 1100 to 2200° C Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

43. 6.8.1 Molybdenum (Mo)6.8.1 Molybdenum (Mo) A silvery-white metal, discovered in the 18th century. It has high melting point, high modulus of elasticity, good resistance to thermal shock, and good electrical and thermal conductivity. Typical applications include solid-propellant rockets, jet engines, honeycomb structures, electronic components, heating elements, and dies for die casting. Principle alloying elements for molybdenum are titanium and zirconium. As alloying element imparts strength, toughness, and corrosion resistance. A major limitation of Mo alloys is their low resistance to oxidation at temperatures above 500 o C, which demands the use of protective coatings Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

44. 6.8.2 Niobium (Nb)6.8.2 Niobium (Nb) First identified in 1801, also known as Columbium. Has good ductility and formability and has greater oxidation resistance than other refractory metals. Niobium alloys are used in rockets and missiles and in nuclear, chemical, and superconductor applications. It is an alloying element in various alloys and superalloys. The metal is processed from ores by reduction and refinement and from powder by melting and shaping into ingots Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

45. 6.8.3 Tungsten (W)6.8.3 Tungsten (W) First identified in 1781; it is the most abundant of all refractory metals. Highest melting point of any metal at 3410° C (6170° F). Therefore, high strength at high temperatures. It has high density and is brittle at low temperatures, and offers poor resistance to oxidation. The filament wire in incandescent light bulbs is made of pure tungsten and is made by powder-metallurgy and wire-drawing techniques. Tungsten alloys are used for application with temperatures above 1650 o C, such as nozzle throat liners in missiles and in hottest parts of jet and rocket engines, circuit breakers, welding electrodes, and spark-plug electrodes. Tungsten carbide, with cobalt as a binder for the carbide particles, is one of the most important materials for tools and dies. W is processed from ore concentrates by chemical decomposition and is then reduced. It is further processed by powder-metallurgy techniques in a hydrogen atmosphere Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

46. 6.8.4 Tantalum (Ta)6.8.4 Tantalum (Ta) Identified in 1802. Characterized by its high melting point (3000° C, 5425° F), high density, good ductility and resistance to corrosion. However, it has poor resistance to chemicals at temperature above 150 o C. Tantalum is used mainly in electrolytic capacitors and in various electrical, electronic and chemical industries. It also is used in thermal applications such as in furnaces and acid-resistant heat exchanges. Tantalum also is used as an alloying element. Many tantalum alloys are available for use in missiles and aircraft. Ta is processed from ores by reduction and refinement and from powder by melting and shaping into ingots. Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

47. 6.9 Beryllium (Be)6.9 Beryllium (Be) Steel grey in color. High strength-to-weight ratio. Used in rocket nozzles, space and missile structures, aircraft disc brakes, and precision instruments and mirrors. It is low neutron absorption, so it is used in nuclear and x-ray applications. It is alloying element of copper and nickel. Be and its oxides are toxic. Their associated dust and fumes should not be inhaled. Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

48. 6.10 Zirconium (Zr)6.10 Zirconium (Zr) Zr is silvery in appearance. Good strength and ductility at elevated temperatures. Good corrosion resistance because of an adherent oxide film. Used in electronic components and in nuclear-power reactor applications because of its low neutron absorption. Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

49. 6.11 Low-Melting Alloys6.11 Low-Melting Alloys Relatively low melting points: lead, zinc, and tin. 6.11.1 Lead (Pb):6.11.1 Lead (Pb): High density, resistance to corrosion (lead-oxide layer), softness, low strength, ductility, and good workability. Alloying it with antimony and tin make it usable in piping, collapsible tubing, bearing alloys, cable sheathing, roofing and lead-acid storage batteries. Lead also is used for damping sound and vibrations, radiation shielding against x-rays, ammunition, as weights, and in the chemical industry. Lead is also an alloying element in solders, steels, and copper alloys, to promote corrosion resistance and machinability. It is poisonous; major efforts are being made to replace it with other elements. Source mineral is galena (PbS). It is mind, smelted, and refined by chemical treatments Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

50. 6.11.2 Zinc (Zn)6.11.2 Zinc (Zn) Bluish-white in color and is the 4th most utilized metal in industry, after Fe, Al, and Cu. Not developed until 18th century. Two major uses: for galvanizing iron, steel sheet, and wire as an alloy base for casting. Major alloying elements in zinc-based alloys are aluminum, copper, and magnesium; they impart strength and dimensional control during casting of metals. Zinc-based alloys are used for making fuel pumps and grills for automobiles, components for household appliances, kitchen equipment, various machinery parts and photoengraving equipment. Zinc also is used in superplastic alloys (example: 78% Zn -22% Al)-undergo large deformation without failure; like plastics. The principle source mineral is zinc sulfide. The ore is first roasted in air and converted to zinc oxide. It is then reduced to zinc either electolytically or by heating in a furnace with coal. Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. 6.11 Low-Melting Alloys6.11 Low-Melting Alloys

51. 6.11.3 Tin (Sn)6.11.3 Tin (Sn) Silvery-white, lustrous metal. Developed in the 15th century. Most extensive use of tin is as a protective coating on steel sheets (tin plating) which is used to make tin cans for food and other products. Low shear strength of the tin coatings on steel sheets improves its performance in deep drawing and press working. Unalloyed tin is used as a lining material for water distillation plants and as a molten layer of metal over which plate glass is made. Tin-based alloys (white metals) generally contain copper, antimony, and lead. The alloying elements impart hardness, strength, and corrosion resistance. Tin-lead alloys are common soldering materials, with a wide range of compositions and melting points. Tin is an alloying element for bronze (copper-tin alloy), titanium, and zirconium alloys. Some tin alloys are used in journal-bearing materials because of their low friction coefficients. Most important source of tin mineral is cassiterite (tin oxide). The ore is mind, concentrated by various techniques, smelted, refined, and cast into ingots for further processing. Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. 6.11 Low-Melting Alloys6.11 Low-Melting Alloys

52. 6.12 Precious Metals6.12 Precious Metals Also known as Noble Metals; most costly metals: Gold, Silver, and Platinum. 1- Gold (Au) Soft and ductile and has good corrosion resistance and any temperature. Used in jewelry, coinage, reflectors, gold leaf for decorative purposes, dental work, electroplating, and electrical contacts and terminals. 2- Silver (Ag) Ductile and has the highest electrical and thermal conductivity of any metal. It develops an oxide film that affects its surface characteristics and appearance. Typical applications include tableware, jewelry, coinage, electroplating, photographic film, electrical contacts, solders, bearing linings, and food and chemical equipment. Sterling silver is an alloy of silver and 7.5% copper. 3- Platinum (Pt) Soft, ductile, grayish-white metal that good corrosion resistance at elevated temperatures. Platinum alloys are used as electrical contacts, for spark-plug electrodes, as catalysts for automobile pollution-control devices, in filaments, in nozzles, in dies for extruding glass fibers, in thermocouples, in electrochemical industry, as jewelry, and in dental work. Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

53. 6.13 Shape-Memory Alloys6.13 Shape-Memory Alloys After being plastically deformed at room temperature into various shapes, they return to their original shape upon heating (Ex. Straight wire into a helical spring then heat…). A typical shape-memory alloy is 55% Nickel – 45% titanium. Other such alloys are: Cu-Al-Ni; Cu-Zn-Al; Fe-Mn-Si. These alloys have good ductility, corrosion resistance, and high electrical conductivity. Can be used to generate motion and/or force in temperature-sensitive actuators. Applications of shaped-memory alloys include various sensors, eyeglass frames, stents, relays, pumps, switches, connectors, clamps, fasteners, and seals Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

54. 6.14 Amorphous Alloys (Metallic Glasses)6.14 Amorphous Alloys (Metallic Glasses) No long-range crystalline structure. Have no grain boundaries and the atoms are packed randomly and tightly. First obtained in the late 1960s by the extremely rapid solidification of the molten alloy. Called metallic glasses because their structure resembles that of glasses. Amorphous alloys typically contain iron, nickel, and chromium, which are alloyed with carbon, phosphorus, boron, aluminum, and silicon. They have excellent corrosion resistance, good ductility, and high strength. Amorphous steels are being developed to with strengths twice those of high-strength steels, with potential applications in large structures Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

55. 6.15 Metal Foams6.15 Metal Foams Metal foams are material structure where the metal consists of only 5- 20% of the structure’s volume. Usually made of aluminum alloys. They are produced by blowing air into molten metal and tapping the froth that forms at the surface; this froth then solidifies into foam. They are very light weight, and attractive materials for aerospace applications. Because of their porosity, they are used as filters and orthopedic implants Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

56. 6.16 Nano-materials6.16 Nano-materials Materials with grains, fibers, films, and composites having particles that are 1-100 nm in size. First investigated in the 1980s. Have properties superior to those of traditional and commercially available materials. These properties include strength, hardness, ductility, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance. Some of the important compositions of a nanometerial are carbides, oxides, nitrides, metals and alloys, organic polymers, and various composites. Synthesis methods include inert-gas condensation, plasma synthesis, electrodeposition, sol-gel synthesis, and mechanical alloying or ball milling. Among the current and potential applications are: Cutting tools and inserts, ceramics, powders for powder-metallurgy processing, next- generation computer chips, flat panel displays for laptop computers and televisions, spark-plug electrodes, igniters and fuels for rockets, medical implants, high- sensitivity sensors, high power magnets and high-energy-density batteries Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.