1. Colonial Encounters

2. A Second Wave of European Conquests
Focused on Asia and Africa
Several new players - Germany, Italy, Belgium, U.S., Japan
Was not demographically catastrophic like the first phase
Was affected by the Industrial Revolution
In general, Europeans preferred informal control (e.g., Latin America, China, the Ottoman Empire)

3. Imperialism in Africa - 1914

4. Imperialism in Asia

5. The Threat of Military Force
Original European military advantage lay in organization, drill, and command structure
Over the nineteenth century, Europeans developed an enormous firepower advantage (repeating rifles and machine guns)
Numerous wars of conquest - the Westerners almost always won

6. Becoming a Colony
India and Indonesia: grew from interaction with European trading firms - assisted by existence of many small and rival states
Most of Africa, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific islands: - deliberate conquest - “the scramble for Africa” based on inter-European rivalry (25yrs)
Decentralized societies were the hardest to conquer

7. Scramble for Africa

8. New Colonies
Australia and New Zealand: more like the colonization of North America - massive death due to disease
Taiwan and Korea: Japanese takeover was done European-style
United States and Russia continued to expand
Liberia: settled by freed U.S. slaves
Ethiopia and Siam (Thailand) avoided colonization skillfully

9. Liberia

10. Cooperation
Some groups and individuals cooperated willingly with their new masters - employment in the armed forces - elite often kept much of their status and privileges - shortage of European administrators made it necessary to rely on them
Governments and missionaries promoted European education - growth of a small class with Western education - governments relied on them increasingly over time

11. Rebellions
Periodic rebellions - Indian Rebellion (1857–1858), based on a series of grievances - Indian Rebellion began as a mutiny among Indian troops - Rebel leaders advocated revival of the Mughal Empire - Widened India’s racial divide; the British were less tolerant of natives - Led the British government to assume direct control over India

12. Indian Rebellion of 1857

13. Race and Tribe
Race was a prominent point distinguishing rulers from the ruled - Education for colonial subjects was limited and emphasized practical matters - The best-educated natives rarely made it into the upper ranks of the civil service
Racism was rampant in areas with a large number of European settlers (e.g., South Africa) - South Africa, whites attempted to industrialize based on cheap African labor

14. Changes in Africa
Colonial states imposed deep changes in people’s daily lives
Colonizers were fascinated with counting and classifying their new subjects - In India, appropriated an idealized caste system - In Africa, identified or invented distinct “tribes”
Colonial policies contradicted European core values and practices at home - colonies were essentially dictatorships - colonies were the antithesis of “national independence” - racial classifications were against Christian and Enlightenment ideas - many colonizers were against spreading “modernization” to the colonies - in time, European contradictions undermined colonial rule

15. A Global Economy
Demand for African and Asian raw materials - subsistence farming diminished - need to sell goods for money to pay taxes - desire to buy new products
Artisans were largely displaced by manufactured goods

16. Forced Labor
Forced Labor - states demanded unpaid labor on public projects - caused widespread starvation (no time to grow crops)
Many areas resisted the forced cultivation of cash crops - German East Africa: major rebellion in 1905 against forced cotton cultivation - Mozambique: peasant sabotage and smuggling kept the Portuguese from achieving their goals there

17. Cash-Crop Agriculture
Many were happy to increase production for world markets - considerable profit to small farmers
In Ghana, African farmers developed export agriculture - leading supplier of cocoa by created a hybrid peasant-capitalist society
Labor shortages led to exploitation
Many colonies specialized in one or two cash crops, creating dependence

18. Cocao Farming

19. Economies of Wage Labor: Working for Europeans
Wage labor in European enterprises was common - low pay, bad conditions, high death rate - massive migration to Asian plantations
Especially in Africa, people moved to European plantations because they had lost their own land

20. Leopold in The Congo

21. Types of Work
Working in Mines - Malaysian tin mines attracted millions of Chinese workers - appallingly high death rates - South African diamond mines created worker migration - African miners were exploited, kept on short-term contracts
Colonial cities attracted many workers - were seen as centers of opportunity - segregated, unsanitary, overcrowded - created a place for a native, Western-educated middle class - created an enormous class of urban poor that could barely live

22. Women and the Colonial Economy: An African Case Study
In pre-colonial Africa, women were usually active farmers, had some economic autonomy
In the colonial economy, women’s lives diverged ever more from men - men tended to dominate the lucrative export crops - women were left with almost all of the subsistence work
Large numbers of men migrated to work elsewhere       - women were left home to cope, including supplying food to men in the cities - women coped in a variety of ways

23. Opportunities for Women
The colonial economy also provided some opportunities to women - especially small trade and marketing - sometimes women’s crops came to have greater cash value - some women escaped the patriarchy of husbands or fathers - led to greater fear of witchcraft and efforts to restrict female travel and sexuality

24. Women Farming in Africa Today

25. Assessing Colonial Development
What was the overall economic impact of colonial rule? - defenders: it jump-started modern growth - critics: long record of exploitation and limited, uneven growth
Colonial rule did help integrate Asian and African economies into the world - though in many cases, that process had already been underway
Colonial rule did introduce some modernizing elements - administrative and bureaucratic structures - communication and transportation infrastructure - schools - health care

26. Social Effects
Colonial rule did not lead to breakthroughs to modern industrial societies - when India won independence, it was one of the poorest developing countries
British rule certainly did not help overcome poverty

27. Poverty in India

28. Education
Getting a Western education created a new identity for many - the almost magical power of literacy - escape from obligations like forced labor - access to better jobs - social mobility and elite status
Many people embraced European culture - created a cultural divide between them and the majority of the population

29. Education
Many of the Western-educated elite saw colonial rule as the path to a better future - in India, they organized reform societies to renew Indian culture - combined Western ideas and classic Hindu texts - European education as a tool to win freedom from oppressive tradition - hopes for renewal through colonial rule were disappointed
Europeans did not treat their Asian and African subjects as equal partners - denigrated the colonized cultures

30. Religion
Widespread conversion to Christianity in New Zealand, the Pacific islands, and non-Muslim Africa - around 10,000 missionaries had gone to Africa by by the 1960s, some 50 million Africans were Christian
Christianity was attractive to many in Africa - military defeat shook belief in the old gods - Christianity was associated with modern education - Christianity gave opportunities to the young, the poor, and many women - Christianity spread mostly through native Africans

31. Christianity Adapts
Christianity was Africanized - continuing use of charms, medicine men - some simply demonized their old gods - wide array of “independent churches” was established
Christianity did not spread widely in India - but it led intellectuals and reformers to define Hinduism

32. African Religion Distribution

33. “Race” and “Tribe”
Notions of race and ethnicity were central to new ways of belonging
By 1900, some African thinkers began to define an “African identity” - united for the first time by the experience of colonial oppression - some argued that African culture and history had the characteristics valued by Europeans (complex political systems, etc.)
Some praised the differences between Africa and Europe - Edward Blyden argued that each race had a distinctive contribution to make to the world - Africa’s contribution was communal, cooperative, and egalitarian societies

34. Apartheid

35. 20th Century Africa
In the twentieth century, such ideas reached a broader public - hundreds of thousands of Africans took part in World War I - some Africans traveled widely
The most important new sense of belonging was the idea of “tribe” (ethnic identity) - ethnic groups were defined much more clearly, thanks to Europeans
Africans found ethnic identity useful - migrants categorized themselves ethnically - organized mutual assistance based on ethnicity

36. Nelson Mandela