1. 1 Psychology 320: Gender Psychology Lecture 58

2. 2 2 Papers are due at the start of class on Friday, April 9th, 2010. Course evaluations are now available online. Reminders and Announcements

3. 3 Mental Health: 1. Are there sex differences in: (a) depression, (b) eating disorders, (c) personality disorders, and (d) suicide? (continued)

4. 4 6. Gender-Related Traits  Agency is negatively correlated with depression. The negative correlation has been attributed to the better problem-solving skills among people high in agency (Bromberger & Matthews, 1996; Marcotte et al., 1999).  Research examining the relationship between unmitigated agency and depression is not available. Are there sex differences in depression? (continued)

5. 5  Communion is unrelated to depression (Bassoff & Glass, 1982; Whitley, 1984).  Unmitigated communion is positively correlated with depression (Helgeson & Fritz, 1998). Two explanations have been offered for this correlation:

6. 6 Model of the Relation Between Unmitigated Communion and Depression (Fritz & Helgeson, 1998)

7. 7 Are there sex differences in eating disorders? The DSM-IV-TR distinguishes between two eating disorders: anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. A third category is included in the DSM-IV-TR: “Eating Disorder Not Otherwise Specified.”

8. 8 Anorexia Nervosa Characterized by: (a) refusal to maintain body weight at or above a minimally normal weight for age and height (i.e., less than 85% of what is expected). (b) intense fear of gaining weight or becoming fat. (c) disturbance in the way one experiences one’s weight or shape, undue influence of weight or shape on self- evaluation, or denial of seriousness of low weight. (d) amenorrhea.

9. 9 Afflicts 0.5% of females and 0.05% of males. Typical onset is in early to late adolescence (14-18 years of age). Results in damage to the bones, muscles, heart, kidneys, intestines, and brain. Mortality rate: 4.0% (Crow et al., 2009).

10. 10 Bulimia Nervosa Characterized by: (a) recurrent episodes of binge eating. (b) recurrent inappropriate compensatory behaviour in order to prevent weight gain (e.g., self-induced vomiting, misuse of laxatives, diuretics, or enemas; fasting; excessive exercise). (c) binge eating and compensatory behaviour occur, on average, at least twice a week for 3 months. (d) undue influence of weight or shape on self-evaluation.

11. 11 Afflicts 1-3% of females and.2% of males. Typical onset is in late adolescence to early adulthood. Mortality rate: 3.9%(Crow et al., 2009). Results in damage to the muscles, heart, intestines, stomach, mouth, throat, and esophagus.

12. 12 Sample Items from the Eating Disorder Inventory (Garner et al., 1983) Drive for Thinness Subscale: I think about dieting. I feel extremely guilty after overeating. I am terrified of gaining weight. I am preoccupied with the desire to be thinner. Bulimia Subscale: I have gone on eating binges where I have felt that I could not stop. I eat moderately in front of others and stuff myself when they are gone. I have thought of trying to vomit in order to lose weight. I eat or drink in secrecy. Body Dissatisfaction Subscale: I think that my stomach is too big. I think that my thighs are too large. I think my hips are too big. I think that my buttocks are too large.

13. 13 The etiology of eating disorders is unclear. However, several “risk factors” have been identified: 1. Genes  Twin studies suggest that eating disorders are heritable (heritability statistic for anorexia:.58-.76; for bulimia:.54-.83; Klump et al., 2001). Males and females with eating disorders have a similar age of onset and exhibit similar symptoms.

14. 14 2. Demographic Factors  Eating disorders are more prevalent among people of European descent (vs. people of African American descent); dancers, actors, models, and athletes; heterosexual females (vs. lesbians); and gay males (vs. heterosexual males; Helgeson, 2009).  There is no clear evidence linking socioeconomic status and education level to eating disorders (Striegel-Moore & Cachelin, 1999).

15. 15 3. Female Gender Role  The female gender role emphasizes: (a) physical attractiveness and (b) concern for others’ opinions.  Although communion is not correlated with disturbed eating (Hepp et al., 2005), unmitigated communion is a risk factor for eating disorders (Helgeson, 2007; Lakkis et al., 1999).

16. 16 5. Societal Factors  Media, parental, and peer pressure have been linked to eating disorders in both females and males. 4. Psychological Factors  Eating disorders are associated with a lack of autonomy, a lack of control, a lack of sense of self, and strivings for perfection and achievement.

17. 17 Body Dysmorphia Among Females

18. 18 Mental Health: 1. Are there sex differences in: (a) depression, (b) eating disorders, (c) personality disorders, and (d) suicide? (continued)