1. Chemical Bonding

2. According to bonding theory, valence electrons are classified in terms of orbital occupancy. (0 = empty, 1 = half filled, 2 = full) – An atom with a valence orbital that has a single electron can theoretically share that electron with another atom Such an electron is called a BONDING ELECTRON – An atom with a full valence orbital (2 e - ’s), repels nearby orbitals and wants to be alone Such a pairing is called a LONE PAIR Bonding Theory: Valence Electrons & Orbitals

3. Covalent Bonding Both atoms have a high EN so neither atom “wins” The simultaneous attraction of two nuclei for a shared pair of bonding electrons = covalent bond EN difference can be zero = Cl – Cl EN = 3.2 EN = 3.2 EN difference can be small = H - Cl EN = 2.2 EN = 3.2 This is called a polar covalent bond – because one side pulls on the electrons more but we will learn more about this in Section 3.3 Cl 2 = diatomic

4. Ionic Bonding The EN of the two atoms are quite different The atom with the higher EN will remove the bonding e - from the other atom Electron transfer occurs – Positive and negative ions are formed which electrically attract each other EN = 0.9EN = 3.2

5. Metallic Bonding Both atoms have a relatively low EN so atoms share valence electrons, but no actual chemical reaction takes place In metallic bonding: a) e - ’s are not held very strongly by their atoms b) the atoms have vacant valence orbitals - This means the electrons are free to move around between the atoms and the (+) nuclei on either side will attract them Analogy: The positive nuclei are held together by a glue of negative e-’s

6. Molecular Elements Many molecular elements are diatomic and some are polyatomic – You will need to memorize the formulas of the 9 molecular elements as they will not be given to you: NameSymbol hydrogenH 2 (g) nitrogenN 2 (g) oxygenO 2 (g) fluorineF 2 (g) chlorineCl 2 (g) iodineI 2 (g) bromineBr 2 (g) phosphorousP 4 (g) sulfurS 8 (g)

7. So why do we care about bonding capacity? – If we know how many bonding e - ’s an atom has, we can predict what structure a molecular compound will have Determining Lewis Formulas AtomNumber of valence electrons Number of bonding electrons Bonding capacity carbon444 nitrogen533 oxygen622 halogens711 hydrogen111 H I.e. Carbon can form 4 single bonds, 2 double bonds, 1 triple and 1 single, or 1 double and 2 singles

8. Determine the Lewis formula & structural formula for the nitrate ion, NO 3 - 1. Count the valence electrons (*look for a net charge if an ion). nitrogen = 1 x 5 valence e-’s = 5 oxygen = 3 x 6 valence e-’s = 18 23 + 1 (b/c net charge is -1) = 24 Lewis Formulas – Guided Ex. #2 N 2. Which is the central atom? Nitrogen (in lesser quantity) 3. Arrange peripheral atoms around central atom and place 1 pair of valence e-’s between them

9. 4. Place lone pairs on all peripheral atoms to complete their octet 5. Place any remaining valence e-’s on the central atom as lone pairs. 6. If the central atom’s octet is not complete, move a lone pair from a peripheral atom to a new position between the peripheral and central atom. 7. If the entity is a polyatomic ion, place square brackets around the entire Lewis formula and then write the net charge outside the bracket on the upper right. Lewis Formulas – Guided Ex. #2 NN N

10. Pg. 95

11. Polarity Chemists believe that molecules are made up of charged particles (electrons and nuclei). A polar molecule is one in which the negative (electron) charge is not distributed symmetrically among the atoms making up the molecule. Thus, it will have partial positive and negative charges on opposite sides of the molecule. A molecule with symmetrical electron distribution is a nonpolar molecule. The existence of polar molecules can be demonstrated by running a stream of water past a charged object. Demo: See Figure 9

12. Pauling explained the polarity of a covalent bond as the difference in electronegativity of the bonded atoms. – If the bonded atoms have the same electronegativity, they will attract any shared electrons equally and form a nonpolar covalent bond. – If the atoms have different electronegativities, they will form a polar covalent bond. – The greater the electronegativity difference, the more polar the bond will be. For a very large electronegativity difference, the difference in attraction may transfer one or more electrons resulting in ionic bonding. PREDICTING AND EXPLAINING POLARITY Cl 2(g) We use the Greek symbol delta to show partial charges

13. Guided Practice #1 Predict the polarity of the water molecule. 1)Draw the Lewis formula 2)VSEPR: Draw the stereochemical formula 3)Assign the EN of the atoms, assign δ– and δ+ to the bonds 4)Draw in the bond dipoles O H Angular (bent) The bond dipoles (vectors) do not balance. Instead, they add together to produce a nonzero molecular dipole (shown in red). This results in a polar molecule (explains bending water) Go to Learning Tip pg. 102

14. BACKGROUND There are three types of forces in matter: 1)Intranuclear force (bond) – bonds within the nucleus between protons and neutrons (very strong) 2)Intramolecular force (bond) – bonds between atoms within the molecule or between ions within the crystal lattice (quite strong) 3)Intermolecular force (bond) – bonds between molecules (quite weak); are electrostatic (involve positive and negative charges) There are 3 types of intermolecular bonds: a) Dipole-Dipole Forces (a.k.a. Polar Forces) b) London Force (a.k.a. London Dispersion Force, Dispersion Force) c) Hydrogen Bonding Note: “Van der Walls force” – includes London and dipole-dipole forces Weakest Medium Strongest

15. 1) Dipole-Dipole Force The simultaneous attraction between oppositely charged ends of polar molecules. ▫ Simply put, the attraction between diploes ▫ Dipole-dipole forces are among the weakest intermolecular forces, but still control important properties (i.e. Solubility because water is polar)) Dipole: a partial separation of positive and negative charges within a molecule, due to electronegativity differences

16. 2) London Force Simultaneous attraction between a momentary dipole in a molecule and the momentary dipoles in surrounding molecules momentary dipole: an uneven distribution of electrons around a molecule, resulting in a temporary charge difference between its ends They last for just the instant that the electrons are not distributed perfectly even.

17. 3) Hydrogen Bonding Occurs when a hydrogen atom bonded to a strongly electronegative atom, (N, O and F) is attracted to a lone pair of electrons in an adjacent molecule. ▫ Hydrogen nucleus (proton) is simultaneously attracted to two pairs of electrons; one closer (in the same molecule) and one further away (on the next molecule) Why do you need a strongly electronegative atom? It pulls the hydrogen’s electron away making it “unshielded”, so the lone pair on the other side can come much closer