1. All organic compounds contain what element? Carbon What are the two other elements most commonly found in organic compounds? Hydrogen and Oxygen Nitrogen and Phosphate are also commonly found

2. Differentiate between covalent and ionic bonds. Covalent= sharing of electrons Ionic= Electrons are donated or accepted.

3. Structure of the Compound Function of the Compound in the Human Body / Cell Functional Group(s)Monomers - what do we call them? -what are some examples? Polymers - what do we call them? -what are some examples? Carbohydrate  Carbonyl (C=0)  Hydroxyl (OH)  Monosaccharides  -glucose, fructose, galactose  Polysaccharides  -cellulose, starch, glycogen  Energy Protein  Carboxyl (COOH)  Amine (NH2)  Amino Acid  -glycine, alanine, leucine  Polypeptide chain  Enzymes – speed up reactions  Structure of your body  Antibodies Lipid  Carboxyl (COOH)  Glycerol & Fatty Acids  Triglycerides  Wax  Phospholipid  Steroids  Store Energy  Insulate the body  Protect the body Nucleic Acid X Nucleotide  DNA & RNA  Store and Express the instructions for life

4. H H O + -

5. Hydrophilic- water loving. These substances interact well with water Generally polar molecules Hydrophobic- water fearing. Do not mix with water. Non-polar molecules

6. 7. Explain acids and bases using the PH scale. Acids are on the lower side of the PH scale. If it’s lower than 7 than it’s an acid; if it’s higher than 7, it’s a base. Acid < 7 Neutral=7 Base > 7

7. Question 8. Enzymes are known as biological catalysts, speeding up chemical reactions. They help build-up or break-down many molecules. Amylase Lactase Ligase Helicase The names have the same –ase ending.

8. Question 9 Enzymes help lower the activation energy needed to start a chemical reaction. This is really helpful for cells since so many chemical reactions need to take place quickly, that without enzymes it would take too long and the organism would eventually die.

9. 10. What environmental factors influence enzyme activity? Temperature PH Enzyme concentration Substrate concentration Inhibitors

10. 11. How do changes in the environmental factors listed above impact the activity of the enzyme? All of these factors can denature an enzyme, or make it stop working by changing the structure. The enzyme works best at their optimum temperature, PH, etc.

11. Element- basic building blocks of all matter- found on the periodic table- pure Molecule-multiple elements together. Atom- Smallest building block of all matter (proton, neutron, electrons) Compound- Multiple elements bonded together

12. Unicellular Example: Bacteria Primitive No Nucleus Unicellular and Multicellular Example: Plants/Animals ComplexNucleus RibosomesDNACellMembrane Prokaryotic Eukaryotic

13. Nucleus- the cell’s genetic control center; stores DNA, makes ribosomes, and directs the synthesis of proteins through RNA Plasma Membrane- composed of lipids and proteins that hold together the cell and regulates what enters/leaves Ribosomes- make proteins Mitochondrion- where cellular respiration occurs; food->energy

14. Chloroplasts- where photosynthesis occurs; sunlight->energy Lysosomes- enzymes break down food, damaged organelles, and bacteria Golgi Body- distributes proteins to various parts of the cell; “shipping center” Vacuoles- stores pigment, poison, food, and water Cell Wall- protects cell and gives it a rigid shape

15. What organelles are found in most prokaryotic cells? Ribosomes, the plasma membrane, the cell wall, and the cytoplasm are all found in prokaryotic cells.

16. What organelles are present in a plant cell that are absent in an animal cell? The cell wall, chloroplasts, and large central vacuole are not found in animal cells.

17. CellTissueOrganOrgan SystemOrganism Levels of Organization Simplest Most Complex

18. Create a table comparing passive and active transport. 1) What direction is the concentration gradient? 2) Is ATP required? 3) What is the goal of this process?

19. Question 20 Define the following terms and classify them as either passive or active 1.Diffusion: The tendency of molecules to spread out into less concentrated space (Passive) 2.Osmosis: The diffusion of water over the cell membrane (Passive) 3.Facilitated Diffusion: Diffusion with the assistance of a protein (Passive) 4.Endocytosis: The process in which a cell absorbs a molecule into itself (Active) 5.Exocytosis: The process in which a cell disperses a molecule from within itself (Active)

20. Question 21 Label a Phospholipid Bilayer: Hydrophobic (Away from water) Hydrophilic (Exposed to Water)

21. Question 22 How do substances affect cells?

22. Question 23: Define Homeostasis: Homeostasis is the constant maintenance within an animal that occurs in order to compensate for disrupting changes. In a sense, it is the force that keeps an animal in a stable condition.

23. Question 24 Plants and some photosynthetic bacteria can use photosynthesis to create energy (sugar).

24. Tri-Phosphate sugar Nitrogen Bases 25. ATP

25. 25. ADP Di-phosphate

26. 25. Differences ATP – Tri-phosphate – Primary energy used to power living things – High amount of chemical energy – Universal Power Source ADP – Di-phosphate – Less commonly used then ATP – Still contains a lot of energy, but less so due to fewer bonds

27. 26. What is chlorophyll? Chlorophyll is the primary pigment found in plants. Chlorophyll is green because it reflects green light. Chlorophyll is found in the chloroplasts in plants.

28. 27. Chemical equation for photosynthesis 6CO 2 + 6H 2 0  C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6H 2 O

29. 28. Chemical equation for cellular respiration C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6H 2 O  6CO 2 + 6H 2 0 + ATP

30. Question 29 Cellular Respiration – The process of chemical energy (sugar) being converted into ATP – The ATP will be used to “fuel” cellular processes (releases energy) Photosynthesis Process of converting Sunlight into chemical energy (sugar) The sugar can be stored until it is needed. Then it will be converted into ATP.

31. Question 30 Chloroplasts – Used to convert sunlight into energy – Found in plants Only – Double Membrane – Where photosynthesis takes place Mitochondrion – Convert chemical substances into energy – Found in animal and some plant cells – Has a double membrane – Site of cellular respiration

32. 31. Compare and Contrast Aerobic respiration When Oxygen IS present Can produce up to 38 ATP Anaerobic respiration When oxygen is NOT present Lactic acid or alcoholic fermentation Produces a net of 2 ATP

33. 32. Cell Cycle Events Interphase Longest phase of the cell cycle. DNA is in chromatin form G1- Growth (organelles duplicate) S- replication (duplication) or DNA G2- Cell Growth Cell Division Prophase- chromosomes Metaphase- Chromosomes align along the metaphase plate (middle) Anaphase- sister chromatids separate Telophase- Cleavage furrow begins and nuclear envelopes reform. Cytokinesis- division of the cytoplasm (two new cells)

34. 33. If a skin cell had 52 chromosomes, how many chromosomes would be found in an egg cell? 26

35. 34.) Compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis ds Go through interphase (cell growth) majority of time Mitosis Meiosis Only once through division cycle At anaphase, sister chromatids separate At cytokinesis, two identical cells separate Chromosome # is identical as the original cell Goes through division cycle twice At anaphase 1, Homologous chromosomes separate At cytokinesis 1, two haploid daughter cells are formed Go through PMAT (second division of meiosis is similar to mitosis) Chromsosome # is half of the original cell and a UNIQUE combination TWO IDENTICAL DIPLOID CELLS Makes BODY (somatic) cells FOUR UNIQUE HAPLOID CELLS Makes GAMETES (egg and sperm)

36. 35. Non-disjunction Nondisjunction is the failure for duplicated chromosomes to separate – Generally during Meiosis II Down syndrome is also known as TRISOMY 21. – Three copies of the 21 st chromosome

37. 36. Describe the shape and composition of a DNA molecule Shape: Double Helix Composition: – Phosphate group – Deoxyribose sugar – 1 of 4 nitrogen bases http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/basics/dna

38. 37. What is the function of DNA? The function of DNA is to store heredity information that will be passed down to generations. It also contains the code for generating mRNA; this will eventually lead to tRNA, rRNA, and eventually proteins.

39. 38) Base Pairing A-T (adenine to thymine) C-G (cytosine to guanine) Bonded by hydrogen bonds – 2 bonds between A and T – 3 bonds between C and G

40. 39) DNA vs. RNA DNA A,T,C,G Deoxyribose sugar Double helix More complex RNA A,U,C,G Ribose sugar Single Strand Less complex

41. 40) Codons Set of three nucleotides on the mRNA strand Instructions for amino acids which then leads to protein production Codes for amino acids 3 letters make up a codon

42. 41) mRNA sequence mRNA: UUC GUU GGA ACC DNA: AAG CAA CCT TGG Amino acid: Phe-Val-Gly-Thr

43. 42 a. Point Mutations Substitution – Point where one nitrogen base is substituted for another – Sickle Cell Anemia: substitute A for T

44. 42 b. Frame Shift Mutations Deletions and Insertions – When a nitrogen base is deleted or added – Frame shift mutations- because it moves the codon up or down – Changes the sequence of amino acids after the mutation

45. 43) Transcription vs. Translation Transcription DNA to RNA Occurs in nucleus Translation RNA to protein Occurs in cytoplasm

46. 44.) Define the following terms: a)Genotype: The genetic makeup of an organism b)Phenotype: The physical traits of an organism c)Homozygous: Having two identical alleles for a given gene d)Heterozygous: Having two different alleles for a given gene e)Dominant: In a heterozygote, the allele that determines the phenotype with respect to a particular gene (the larger letter) f)Recessive: In a heterozygous individual, the allele that has no noticeable effect on the phenotype (the smaller letter)

47. 45. How are the following words related? DNA, gene, RNA, protein, trait Gene (stretch of DNA) that is transcribed into RNA, that is translated into PROTEIN, that is expressed as a TRAIT

48. 46. Punnett Square tool used to determine the probability of traits being passed on to offspring based on parents genotypes Parents genotypes represent egg and sperm Offspring's genotypes represent body cells

49. 47. a)Monohybrid Heterozygote Parents (Tt x Tt) b) Blonde hair is dominant to brown. Two parents are mated one with blonde hair and one with brown, and some of their children end up with blonde and some with brown. a)b) Parent 1- Bb Parent 2- bb

50. 48. Children born with a recessive genetic disorder can have parents that do not express the disorder, because the parents are heterozygous. The parents have the gene for the disorder, but it is masked by the dominant gene. This is how some traits can “skip” a generation.

51. 49. Gene Pool Gene pool is the available genes in a breeding population.

52. 50. Species can achieve genetic variation over many generations by breeding outside of the immediate family. – No inbreeding This allows new genes to be introduced

53. 51. A species can loose genetic diversity overtime by not “adding” to the gene pool. – Inbreeding – No gene shuffling