1. 1 Semaphores n Semaphores  Issues addressed:  1. Problems with busy-waiting  2. Definition of a semaphore: init(s), P(s) and V(s) - invariant  3. Examples  Critical Section Problem; Producers and Consumers  Bounded Buffer; Dining Philosophers  Databases - Readers and Writers  Scheduling - barriers; SJN

2. 2 Semaphores n Introduction  Busy Waiting Problems  1. Synchronising variables look like ordinary variables.  2. Busy-wait is inefficient because processor cycles are wasted reading locks.  3. Can't guarantee fairness Because Synchronization is fundamental to concurrent programs, it is desirable to have special tools that aid in the design of correct synchronization protocols and that can be used to block processes that must be delayed Semaphores were the first and remain one of the most important synchronization tools

3. Semaphores n The concept of a semaphore is motivated by one of the ways in which railroad traffic is synchronized to avoid train collisions. n A railroad semaphore is a signal flag that indicates whether the track ahead is clear or is occupied by another train. n As a train proceeds, semaphores are set and cleared; they remain set long enough to allow another train time to stop if necessary. 3 Semaphores in concurrent programming are similar: They provide a basic signalling mechanism and are used to implement mutual exclusion and condition synchronization

4. Semaphores n A Semaphore is a special kind of shared variable that is manipulated only by two atomic operations P and V. n The value of a semaphore is a nonnegative integer. n The V operation is used to signal the occurrence of an event, so it increments the value of a semaphore. n The P operation is used to delay a process until an event has occurred, so it waits until the value of the semaphore is positive then decrements the value. 4 The letter P and V are mnemonics for Dutch words, think of P as standing for pass, and think of the upward shape of V as signifying increment

5. 5 Semaphores  Advantages of Semaphores  1. Special variables used for synchronisation  2. Implemented in O/S kernel without wasting processor cycles.  Real-World Analogy  Purchase a cardboard box. Call it s. Put n pieces of paper into it. A person gets a piece of paper from s. Call this operation P(s). (The number of pieces of paper in the box decreases by one.) A person puts a piece of paper into the box. Call this operation V(s). (The number of pieces of paper in the box increases by one.) Never allow the total number of pieces of paper in circulation to change.

6. 6 Semaphores  General Semaphore  A semaphore, s, is an object which is manipulated by two operations P(s) and V(s). It has an initial integer value, init.  Invariant  Define the following: nP - the number of completed P operations nV - the number of completed V operations init - the initial value of the semaphore  Let the expression S be: S = init + nV - nP  Then the semaphore invariant SEM is: SEM: S  0  Because a P operation increases nP by 1, (which decreases init by 1), then if S ==0 after P it must be greater than 0 before P.

7. Semaphores n After a semaphore has been declared and initialised, it can be manipulated only by using the P and V operations. n Let s be a semaphore, then the definitions of P(s) and V(s) are:  P(S): 0) s=s-1;>  V(s): n The V operation atomically increments the value of S. The P operation decrements the value of s, but to ensure that s in never negative, the operation P waits until s is positive. n The delay and decrement in the P operation are a single atomic action. 7 Atomic

8. Semaphores n Suppose s is a semaphore with current value 1: 1) If two processes try at the same time to execute P(s) operations, only one process will succeed. 2) If one process try to execute P(s) at the same time tht another process tries to execute V(s), the two operations will both success – in an unpredictable order – and the final value of s will again be 1. 8 A general semaphore is one that can take on any nonnegative value

9. 9 Semaphores  Binary Semaphore  This is a semaphore, b, in which the value of the semaphore is only ever 0 or 1. The invariant is: BSEM: 0  b  1  In this case P(b) and V(b) must alternate in their actions. P(b): 0) b = 0; > V(b):  Critical Section - Semaphores  Assume that there are n processes, each one containing a critical section. Let: in[i] = 1 if process i is in CS and in[i]= 0 if process i is not in CS  We want for the CS: (in[1]+…+in[n]<=1) to be a global invariant.  Write S = 1 - (in[1] + in[2]... + in[n])  Before process i enters the critical section we want: S = 1 (all in[i] to be zero )  Inside the critical section we want: S = 0 (exactly one in[i] is one) So we can protect a critical section by making: -Each entering process carry out a P(S) operation -Each exiting process carry out a V(S) operation

10. 10 Semaphores  CS Solution  Entry protocol is: which is P(s), by definition.  Exit protocol is: which is V(s) by definition. Define s : semaphore = 1 initially Process P[i:1 to n]{ while (true){ P(s); …critical section V(s); } …non-critical section }

11. 11 Semaphores n Semaphore Applications  1. Producers and Consumers  The mailbox in Toytown holds only one letter. Producers of messages put letters into the mailbox, consumers take them out.  A producer can put a letter into the mailbox if the mailbox is empty. A consumer can take a letter out of the mailbox if the mailbox is full. A consumer must take any letter that is there.  Solution:  Use two semaphores: empty and full.  Producers wait on empty, signal full.  Consumers wait on full, signal empty.  The code is shown next: M Buffer PC Process Empty Full (Semaphores)

12. 12 Semaphores Message buf; sem empty := 1, sem full := 0 Process Producer[i: 1 to M] { while (true) { Message messi; {.. Produce value in messi..} P(empty); buf := messi; V(full); } Process Consumer[j:1 to N] { while (true){ Message messj; P(full); messj := buf; V(empty); {.. Consume value in messj.. } }  Put letter into buffer  Take letter out of buffer

13. 13 Semaphores  Split Binary Semaphores  A set of binary semaphores b1,.., bn forms a split binary semaphore in a program if the following assertion is a global invariant in the program: SPLIT: 0  b1 + b2 +.. bn  1  (empty = b1 and full = b2 form a split binary semaphore in the producer/consumer program)  Bounded Buffer Problem  Assume a mailbox has space for N messages. There is just one producer and just one consumer. The aim is to add messages to the buffer if it is not full and remove messages from the buffer if it is not empty.  Producer: Add messages to buf[rear] and then increment rear.  Consumer: Read messages from buf[front] and then increment front. Note. Only empty or full is set to 1 at any time – i.e. mutual exclusion

14. 14 Semaphores  Let Empty and Full be semaphores that indicate the number of empty slots and the number of full slots.  Then Producer must wait on Empty, add the message and then increment Full.  Similarly Consumer must wait on Full, read the message and then increment Empty. Message buf[1:n]; sem Empty = N; sem Full = 0; int rear = 1; int front = 1; Process Producer { Message messP; while (true) { …create message m P(Empty); buf[rear] = messP; rear = rear mod N + 1; V(Full); } Process Consumer { Message messC; while (true) { P(Full); messC := buf[front]; front := front mod N + 1; V(Empty); }

15. 15 Semaphores  Many Producers, Consumers  This is the bounded buffer problem, with the extra possibility that there can be many producers and many consumers. The producers all access the shared variable rear, and the consumers access the shared variable front.  Need to introduce two new semaphores: MutexP and MutexC to protect the critical sections in the code. Message buf[1:n]; sem Empty = N; sem Full = 0; int rear = 1; int front = 1; sem MutexP = 1; sem MutexC = 1; Global Variables (need to be protected by mutual exclusion)

16. 16 Semaphores Producer Producer { Message messP; while (true) { create message messP; P(Empty); P(MutexP); buf[rear] = messP; rear = rear mod N + 1; V(mutexP); V(Full); } Process Consumer { Message messC; while (true) { P(Full); P(MutexC); messC = buf[front]; front = front mod N + 1; V(MutexC); V(Empty); } Only one Consumer process is allowed to access front of buffer value at any time Only one Producer process is allowed to access rear of buffer at any time  Wait until there is space available in the buffer  Wait until there is at least one item in the buffer  Producer process gets mutually exclusive access to rear of buffer  Consumer process gets mutually exclusive access to front of buffer  Producer process releases exclusive access to rear of buffer  Consumer process releases exclusive access to front of buffer  Signal that an item has been placed in the buffer  Signal that there is another free space in the buffer

17. Semaphores n Dining Philosophers 17 Philosophers Thinking/EatingTable Numbering

18. 18 Semaphores  The Dining Philosophers  The philosophers eat and think in a continuous cycle of activity. In order to eat a philosopher must acquire both a left fork and a right fork, although not necessarily in that order.  Solution Each fork i is a shared resource and can be modelled by a binary semaphore fork[i]. sem fork[5] = {1, 1, 1, 1, 1}; (initially free) Process Philosopher [i = 0 to 3]{//pick up left fork first while (true) { P(fork[i]); P(fork[i + 1]) …Eat V(fork[i]); V(fork[i + 1]) …Think }  Wait for two forks to be available  Release two forks

19. 19 Semaphores Process Philosopher[4] {//pick up the right fork first while (true)  P(fork[0]); P(fork[4]); …Eat V(fork[0]); V(fork[4]); …Think } (Note. If they all pick up the left (or right) fork first then we will have deadllock!! )  The above program is deadlock-free. (Proof: Assume that Phil 4 is stuck. Then either he is waiting to get fork 0, or he is waiting to get fork 4 and so on..).  Wait for two forks to be available  Release two forks Assume you are waiting to get fork 0  Phil 0 is eating  Phil 1 is NOT eating  Phil 2 is eating  Phil 3 is NOT eating So when Phil 0 stops eating then Phil 4 can start eating as fork 4 is free (Phil 3 is NOT eating) (Note. The same logic would apply going in an anticlockwise direction)

20. 20 Semaphores  The Readers and Writers  Any number of readers can access a DB, provided that there are no writers accessing the DB concurrently. Up to one writer can have exclusive access to the DB. (Database applications often have this situation with Locks).  Solution:  Let nr be the number of readers.  If no-one is writing then we can increase nr.  If there is a writer, then everyone must wait until the writer which has control of the resource has finished.  Need one semaphore called Rw for condition synchronisation: Rw is 1 if no-one is accessing the DB, 0 otherwise.  The second semaphore, MutexR, allows readers to access the global variable nr in an orderly fashion. Database R R R W

21. 21 Semaphores Program ReadersAndWriters { int nr = 0; sem MutexR = 1; sem Rw = 1; Process Reader[i = 1 to m] { while (true) { P(MutexR); (wait to alter nr) nr = nr + 1; if (nr == 1) P(Rw); V(MutexR); …read DB P(MutexR); nr = nr - 1; if (nr == 0) V(Rw); V(MutexR); }  Global Variable needs to be protected  First Reader waits for Writer to leave  Last Reader leaving signals waiting writer Atomic update of global variable nr

22. 22 Semaphores (n writers - they must compete for writes) Process Writer[j = 1 to n] while (true) { P(Rw); …write DB V(Rw); } } // end ReadersAndWriters  Wait until no Readers or a Writer is accessing the database  Signal a waiting Reader or Writer

23. 23 Semaphores  Barriers  Four workers work independently until they need to share results. A co- ordinator process waits until all four are finished. It reads the results produced by the workers and then issues fresh instructions to the workers, telling them to start again. Two semaphores: Done and Start_again SomeDataStructure instruction[1:4]; AnotherDataStructure result[1:4]; sem Done = 0; sem StartAgain = 0; Process Worker[i = 1 to 4] { while (true) { …work on local data result[i] = local data; V(Done); P(Start_again); …read instruction[i] -- from Co-ordinator } 12341234 WP1 CP Results V(Done) P(Done) Note. The “reverse” pattern of signalling occurs on the semaphore StartAgain  Signal Result available  Wait for next instruction

24. 24 Semaphores Process Coordinator { while (true) { for [i = 1 to 4] P(Done); for [i = 1 to 4] …read result[i];.. generate new instructions[1:4] for [i = 1 to 4] V(Start_again); } Wait until all four processes have deposited results Read Results and generate new instructions for workers Signal all the workers to start again

25. 25 Semaphores  Resource Allocation Assume we have a set of N processes which want a number of units of a resource. Process Requester [i= 1to N] { …use the units return u units }  It may be desirable to examine the set of waiting processes explicitly and to grant the resource to selected processes.

26. 26 Semaphores  General Solution Pattern 1. Maintain a private working area of memory in which requests can be queued in a list, L, and the number of available units, U, can be stored. 2. Protect the area with a semaphore Mutex 3. When requester makes request it reads U to see if the request can be granted. (i) If grant can be made then allow the requester to proceed and decrease U by u, the number of available units. (ii) Otherwise, there are not enough free units, so add the requester identifier i to the queue, together with the size of the request, u and make the requester process wait on an appropriate semaphore b[i], from an array of sems. 4. On release:  Increase the number of available units.  Examine the request queue. If any requests can be granted then decrease the number of available units and signal the appropriate semaphore b[i]. (b[1:N] is an array of binary semaphores, one for each process. Initially all b[i] are zero.)

27. 27 Semaphores sem Mutex = 1; sem b[1:N] = ([N] 0) ; List L, const int U; … procedure Request(int i, int u) { P(Mutex); if (u < U) { U = U - u; V(Mutex); } else {…add Process i, and amount u to List V(Mutex); P(b[i]); } procedure Release(int i, int u) P(Mutex); U = U + u; for each member, (i, uuu) of List { if (uuu < U) {//(…check U against (i, uuu)) U = U - uuu; …Remove (i, uuu) from List V(b[i]); } V(Mutex); }  Result can be satisfied  Get exclusive access  Release exclusive access  Request cannot be satisfied so wait in queue  Get exclusive access  Release the units back to the central resource Check to see if requests waiting in queue can be satisfied  Signal process that has request satisfied that it can stop waiting  Release exclusive access

28. 28 Semaphores  Each process/program that wishes to use the resource (e.g. CPU time in a time-slicing system) will call Requester and wait until it is granted the resource. Process Requester[i = 1 to N] { while (true) { compute u; # work out units needed Request(i, u); …use the units of the resource Release(i, u); }  Process to request resource  Process to release resource

29. 29 Semaphores  Shortest Job Next - SJN  A single resource is to be allocated to the waiting job (process) with the shortest execution time.  Examples include:  giving the CPU to the waiting process which will execute the most quickly,  giving a printer to the print job with the fewest pages  Let free be a boolean variable which is true when the resource is free, otherwise it is false. (var free = true (initially) )  Let L be a list of (time, proc_id) pairs where process proc_id has requested the resource for time (seconds).  Each process calls request() to get the resource and release() to release the resource. Note. All the resource is held by a single process at a time

30. 30 Semaphores  SJN Semaphore Solution sem e= 1; bsem b[1:n]=( [n]0 ); List L; boolean free = true; procedure request(time_taken, proc_id){ P(e);-- ensure exclusive if (not free) { …insert(time_taken, proc_id) in L (keeping list L in time order) V(e); P(b[proc_id]); } free = false; -- got resource V(e); }  Add to list of waiting processes  Get exclusive access  Release exclusive access (without getting resource)  Wait until signalled that the resource is available  Release exclusive access (after getting resource)

31. 31 Semaphores procedure release() { P(e); if (List L is non-empty){ … extract proc_id from head of list V(b[proc_id]); } else free = true; V(e); }  Get exclusive access  Release exclusive access  Signal waiting process at the head of the list  Indicate the resource is now free – it is handed back and there is nobody waiting to take it

32. 32 Semaphores n Question  Draw an Interaction Diagram for the Barrier Problem (Four Workers and one Coordinator). n Topics addressed:  Problems with busy-waiting  Definition of a semaphore: init(s), P(s) and V(s) - invariant  Examples  Critical Section Problem; Producers and Consumers  Bounded Buffer; Dining Philosophers  Databases - Readers and Writers  Scheduling - barriers; SJN