1. PROPAGANDA

2. Word Games

3. Name Calling Links person or idea to negative symbol Seeks to make audience reject and condemn person or idea based on symbol Involves bad names, words or phrases with negative emotional charge Examples: Fascist, Terrorist, Pig, Lazy, Cowardly, Stingy, Anarchy

4. Name Calling Questions you can ask: What does the name really mean? Does the idea in question have a legitimate connection with the real meaning of the name? Is an idea that serves my best interests being dismissed through giving it a name I don’t like? Leaving the name out of consideration, what are the merits of the idea itself?

5. Glittering Generalities People believe in, fight for, and live by “virtue words” they have deep-set ideas about Mean different things to different people and can be used in different ways Seeks to make audience approve and accept without examining evidence Involves vivid, emotionally suggestive words Examples: Civilization, Good, Right, Democracy, Freedom, Health, Love

6. Glittering Generalities Questions you can ask: What does the virtue word really mean? Does the idea in question have a legitimate connection with the real meaning of the word? Is an idea that does not serve my best interests being “sold” to me merely through its being given a name that I like? Leaving the virtue word out of consideration, what are the merits of the idea itself?

7. Euphemisms Attempts to pacify the audience in order to make an unpleasant reality more palatable Involves bland, vague, neutral words Examples: Civilian casualties vs. collateral damage Murder vs. liquidation Shell shock vs. combat fatigue vs. PTSD

8. Euphemisms Questions you can ask: What does the euphemism really mean? In the simplest terms, what is the speaker’s proposal? Does the information presented seem more negative or positive when I substitute a non- euphemistic term? Replacing the euphemism with more accurate language, what are the merits of the idea itself?

9. False Connections

10. Transfer Carries authority, sanction, and prestige of something audience respects and reveres to something speaker wants audience to accept Involves symbols representing church, country, community, science Makes connections that are not relevant or legitimate Can be used for and against causes Examples: Associating racist beliefs with medical science Ending a political speech with a prayer

11. Transfer Questions you can ask: What is the meaning of the thing the propagandist is using to legitimize their proposal? Is there any legitimate connection between the proposal of and the revered thing, person or institution? Removing the transfer from the argument, what are the merits of the proposal viewed alone?

12. Testimonial Can be used to construct a fair, well-balanced argument, however is often misused Involves citing individuals who are not qualified to make judgments about a certain issue When testimony is provided by admired celebrity, audience is much less likely to be critical Examples: Athletes endorsing products (food, hygiene, clothing) Celebrities endorsing political candidates

13. Testimonial Questions you can ask: Who or what is quoted in the testimonial? Why should we regard this person, organization, or publication as having expert knowledge or trustworthy information on the subject in question? Removing the testimonial from the argument, what are the merits of the proposal viewed alone?

14. Special Appeals

15. Plain Folks Attempts to convince audience that speaker and ideas are “of the people” Used by advertisers and politicians Often involves powerful speaker portraying self as “ordinary” individual or outsider to elite group Examples: Wealthy politicians sharing “rags to riches” stories

16. Plain Folks Questions you can ask: What are the ideas worth when divorced from the speaker’s personality? What could the speaker be trying to cover up with the plain folks approach? What are the facts?

17. Bandwagon Basic theme: “everyone else is doing it; so should you” Appeals to desire to fit in, be part of a group Appeals to already cohesive groups (based on occupation or religion) so audience will follow en masse Examples: Appeal to people by occupation (farmers, nurses, students, etc.) Appeal to people of a certain religion

18. Bandwagon Questions you can ask: What is the speaker’s program? What is the evidence for and against the program? Regardless of the fact that others support this program, why I should support it? Does the program serve or undermine my individual and collective interests?

19. Fear Warns members of audience that disaster will result if they do not follow particular course of action Hopes to direct attention away from merits of particular proposal and toward ways to reduce fear Contains threat, specific way to avoid threat, perception that recommendation will be effective, and audience belief in ability to perform behavior Examples: Pro-gun group notes rising crime, asks people to oppose weapons limitations Commercial shows a terrible car accident, asks people to buy insurance

20. Fear Questions you can ask: Is the speaker exaggerating the fear or threat in order to obtain my support? How legitimate is the fear that the speaker is provoking? Will performing the recommended action actually reduce the supposed threat? When viewed dispassionately, what are the merits of the speaker’s proposal?