1. Psychology CHAPTER Cognition: Thinking and Intelligence 10

2. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Module 25 Thinking

3. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Learning Objectives LO 25.1How are mental images and concepts involved in the process of thinking? LO 25.1 LO 25.2What methods do people use to solve problems and make decisions? LO 25.2 LO 25.3Can a machine be made to think like a person? LO 25.3 LO 25.4What are some obstacles to problem solving? LO 25.4 LO 25.5What are some obstacles to making good judgments? LO 25.5 LO 25.6What are some obstacles to decision making? LO 25.6

4. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Thinking and Mental Images Thinking (cognition) - mental activity that goes on in the brain when a person is organizing and attempting to understand information and communicating information to others. LO 25.1 How are mental images and concepts involved in the process of thinking?

5. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Thinking and Mental Images Mental images - mental representations that stand for objects or events and have a picture-like quality. LO 25.1 How are mental images and concepts involved in the process of thinking?

6. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Concepts Concepts - ideas that represent a class or category of objects, events, or activities. Superordinate concept - the most general form of a type of concept, such as “animal” or “fruit.” LO 25.1 How are mental images and concepts involved in the process of thinking?

7. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Concepts Basic level type - an example of a type of concept around which other similar concepts are organized, such as “dog,” “cat,” or “pear.” LO 25.1 How are mental images and concepts involved in the process of thinking?

8. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Concepts Subordinate concept - the most specific category of a concept, such as one's pet dog or a pear in one's hand. Formal concept - a concept that is defined by specific rules or features. LO 25.1 How are mental images and concepts involved in the process of thinking?

9. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Concepts Natural concept - a concept formed as a result of someone's experiences in the real world. Prototype - an example of a concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of a concept. LO 25.1 How are mental images and concepts involved in the process of thinking?

10. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Figure 25.2 Prototypical and Atypical Fruits The fruits on the left side of the image are the ones that people tend to think of as prototypical examples of fruit. The further to the right a fruit is, the less similar it is to common prototypical examples of fruit. Source: Adapted from Rosch & Mervis (1975, p. 576).

11. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Problem-Solving Problem solving - process of cognition that occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways. Trial and error (mechanical solution) – problem-solving method in which one possible solution after another is tried until a successful one is found. LO 25.2 What methods do people use to solve problems and make decisions?

12. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Problem-Solving Algorithms - very specific, step-by-step procedures for solving a certain type of problem. LO 25.2 What methods do people use to solve problems and make decisions?

13. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Problem-Solving Heuristic - an educated guess based on prior experiences that helps narrow down the possible solutions for a problem. Also known as a “rule of thumb.” –Means–end analysis - heuristic in which the difference between the starting situation and the goal is determined and then steps are taken to reduce that difference. LO 25.2 What methods do people use to solve problems and make decisions?

14. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Problem-Solving Insight - sudden perception of a solution to a problem. LO 25.2 What methods do people use to solve problems and make decisions?

15. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Problem-Solving Heuristic - an educated guess based on prior experiences that helps narrow down the possible solutions for a problem. Also known as a “rule of thumb.” LO 25.2 What methods do people use to solve problems and make decisions?

16. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Problem-Solving Heuristic – (continued) –Representative heuristic - the tendency to believe that any object (or person) that shares characteristics with the members of a particular category is also a member of that category. –Subgoaling - process of breaking a goal down into smaller goals. LO 25.2 What methods do people use to solve problems and make decisions?

17. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Problem-Solving Heuristic – (continued) –Means–end analysis - heuristic in which the difference between the starting situation and the goal is determined and then steps are taken to reduce that difference. Insight - sudden perception of a solution to a problem. LO 25.2 What methods do people use to solve problems and make decisions?

18. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Artificial Intelligence Artificial intelligence (AI) - the creation of a machine that can think like a human. –True flexibility of human thought processes has yet to be developed in a machine. LO 25.3 Can a machine be made to think like a person?

19. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Problem-Solving Barriers Functional fixedness - a block to problem solving that comes from thinking about objects in terms of only their typical functions. Mental set - the tendency for people to persist in using problem-solving patterns that have worked for them in the past. LO 25.4 What are some obstacles to problem solving?

20. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Problem-Solving Barriers Confirmation bias – the tendency to search for evidence that fits one's beliefs while ignoring any evidence that does not fit those beliefs. LO 25.4 What are some obstacles to problem solving?

21. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Figure 25.3 The String Problem The string problem: How do you tie the two strings together if you cannot reach them both at the same time? LO 10.2 Gender

22. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Figure 25.5 The Solution to the String Problem The solution to the string problem is to use the pliers as a pendulum to swing the second string closer to you. LO 10.2 Gender

23. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Figure 25.6 The Solution to the Dot Problem When people try to solve this problem, a mental set causes them to think of the dots as representing a box, and they try to draw the line while staying in the box. The only way to connect all nine dots without lifting the pencil from the paper is to think outside the box—drawing the lines so they extend out of the box of dots. LO 10.3 Theories on gender role, gender stereotyping and androgyny

24. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Creativity Creativity - the process of solving problems by combining ideas or behavior in new ways. –Convergent thinking - type of thinking in which a problem is seen as having only one answer, and all lines of thinking will eventually lead to that single answer, using previous knowledge and logic. LO 25.4 What are some obstacles to problem solving?

25. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Creativity Creativity – (continued) –Divergent thinking – type of thinking in which a person starts from one point and comes up with many different ideas or possibilities based on that point (kind of creativity). LO 25.4 What are some obstacles to problem solving?

26. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Table 25.1 Stimulating Divergent Thinking

27. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Mental Shortcuts Conjunction fallacy - the error of believing specific conditions are more probable than a single general one. Availability heuristic - the tendency to estimate the probability of a certain condition or event based on how many similar instances we can recall. LO 25.5 What are some obstacles to making good judgments?

28. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Mental Shortcuts Anchoring effect - the tendency to consider all of the information available, even when it is irrelevant. LO 25.5 What are some obstacles to making good judgments?

29. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Common Barriers Gambler's fallacy - the belief that the chance of something occurring depends on whether it has recently occurred. Loss aversion - the tendency to be more sensitive to actual or potential losses than to gains. LO 25.6 What are some obstacles to decision making?

30. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Module 26 Intelligence

31. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Learning Objectives LO 26.1How do psychologists define intelligence? LO 26.1 LO 26.2What are some established theories of intelligence? LO 26.2 LO 26.3What are intellectual disability and giftedness? LO 26.3 LO 26.4What is the history of intelligence testing? LO 26.4 LO 26.5How is intelligence measured today? LO 26.5 LO 26.6How can we determine whether intelligence tests are reliable and valid? LO 26.6 LO 26.7How are intelligence tests used in the real world? LO 26.7

32. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Intelligence Intelligence - the ability to learn from one's experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources effectively in adapting to new situations or solving problems. LO 26.1 How do psychologists define intelligence?

33. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Theories of Intelligence Spearman's Theory –g factor – the ability to reason and solve problems, or general intelligence. –s factor – the ability to excel in certain areas, or specific intelligence. LO 26.2 What are some established factors of intelligence?

34. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Theories of Intelligence Triarchic theory of intelligence – Sternberg's theory that there are three kinds of intelligences: analytical, creative, and practical. –Analytical intelligence – the ability to break problems down into component parts, or analysis, for problem solving. LO 26.2 What are some established factors of intelligence?

35. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Theories of Intelligence Triarchic theory of intelligence – (continued) –Creative intelligence – the ability to deal with new and different concepts and to come up with new ways of solving problems. –Practical intelligence – the ability to use information to get along in life and become successful. LO 26.2 What are some established factors of intelligence?

36. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Theories of Intelligence Gardner's Theory –Multiple intelligences - ranging from verbal, linguistic, and mathematical to interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence. LO 26.2 What are some established factors of intelligence?

37. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Table 26.1 Gardner's Multiple Intelligences

38. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Theories of Intelligence Emotional intelligence – the awareness of and ability to manage one's own emotions as well as the ability to be self-motivated, able to feel what others feel, and socially skilled. Viewed as a powerful influence on success in life. LO 26.2 What are some established factors of intelligence?

39. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Standardization and the Normal Curve Standardization - the process of giving the test to a large group of people that represents the kind of people for whom the test is designed. Mean - the average score within a group of scores, calculated by adding all of the scores and then dividing by the number of scores. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness?

40. Standardized Tests Standardization - the process of giving a test to a large group of people that represents the population whom the test is designed. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness?

41. Standardized Tests Mean - the average score within a group of scores, calculated by adding all of the scores and then dividing by the number of scores. Standard deviation - a statistical measure of the average variation from the mean. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness?

42. Figure 26.1 The Normal Curve This curve represents the frequency of different scores people get when they take the Wechsler IQ test, a widely used standardized intelligence test. The percentage sunder each section of the normal curve represent the percentage of scores falling within that section for each standard deviation (SD) from the mean. The mean score is 100. To be classified as gifted, a person must score 130 or higher, a score more than two standard deviations above the mean. To be classified as developmentally delayed, a person must score 70 or below—that is, more than two standard deviations below the mean.

43. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Intellectual Disability Developmentally delayed - condition in which a person's behavioral and cognitive skills exist at an earlier developmental stage than the skills of others who are the same chronological age. A more acceptable term for mental retardation. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness?

44. Intellectual Disability Developmentally delayed – (continued) –Mental retardation or developmental delay is a condition in which IQ falls below 70 and adaptive behavior is severely deficient for a person of a particular chronological age. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness?

45. Intellectual Disability Four levels of delay are: –Mild: 55–70 IQ –Moderate: 40–55 IQ –Severe: 25–40 IQ –Profound: Below 25 IQ Causes of developmental delay include deprived environments, as well as chromosome and genetic disorders and dietary deficiencies. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness?

46. Table 26.2 Classifications of Developmental Delay LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness?

47. Giftedness Gifted - the 2 percent of the population falling on the upper end of the normal curve and typically possessing an IQ of 130 or above. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness?

48. Does Giftedness Guarantee Success? Terman conducted a longitudinal study that demonstrated that gifted children grow up to be successful adults for the most part. –Terman's study has been criticized for a lack of objectivity because he became too involved in the lives of his participants, even to the point of interfering on their behalf. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness?

49. IQ Tests Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test yields an IQ score. Intelligence quotient (IQ) - a number representing a measure of intelligence, resulting from the division of one's mental age by one's chronological age and then multiplying that quotient by 100. LO 26.4 What is the history of intelligence testing?

50. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? IQ Tests Deviation IQ scores - a type of intelligence measure that assumes that IQ is normally distributed around a mean of 100 with a standard deviation of about 15. LO 26.4 What is the history of intelligence testing?

51. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? IQ Tests Today Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test yields an IQ score. Wechsler Intelligence Tests yield a verbal score and a performance score, as well as an overall score of intelligence. LO 26.5 How is intelligence measured today?

52. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Table 26.3 Paraphrased Items from the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test

53. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Table 26.4 Paraphrased Sample Items from the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-III) LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness?

54. Test Construction Validity - the degree to which a test actually measures what it's supposed to measure. Reliability - the tendency of a test to produce the same scores again and again each time it is given to the same people. LO 26.6 How can we determine whether intelligence tests are reliable and valid?

55. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Test Construction Norms - scores from a standardized group of people, the standards against which all others who take the test would be compared. LO 26.6 How can we determine whether intelligence tests are reliable and valid?

56. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Heredity and Environment and Intelligence Cultural bias - the tendency of IQ tests to reflect, in language, dialect, and content, the culture of the test designer(s). Intelligence tests are created by people from a particular culture and background. LO 26.7 How are intelligence tests used in the real world?

57. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Heredity and Environment and Intelligence Stronger correlations are found between IQ scores as genetic relatedness increases. Heritability of IQ is estimated at 0.50. The Bell Curve - book that made widely criticized claims about the heritability of intelligence. LO 26.7 How are intelligence tests used in the real world?

58. LO 26.3 What are intellectual disability and giftedness? Figure 26.2 Correlations Between IQ Scores of Persons with Various Relationships In the graph on the left, the degree of genetic relatedness seems to determine the agreement (correlation) between IQ scores of the various comparisons. For example, identical twins, who share 100 percent of their genes, are more similar in IQ than fraternal twins, who share 50 percent of their genes, when raised in the same environment. In the graph on the right, identical twins are still more similar to each other in IQ than are other types of comparisons, but being raised in the same environment increases the similarity considerably.