1. Communication Theories
Dr. Mrinal Chatterjee

2. Communication Theories
Since the world War II several studies have been conducted in the field of communication. Most of such studies are based on the impact of communication and media on the human society.
One of the earliest studies in this category is the Hypodermic / Bullet Theory.

3. Hypodermic/ Bullet Theory
This theory was based on the principle that media is all powerful and its consumers are passive and naïve. It further stated messages channelised through media are like MAGIC BULLETS which not only strikes the audience immediately but also influences them to take up the desired action immediately.

4. X5 X4
Media X3 X2 X1

5. Two Step Flow of Information
The main authors of this theory were: Paul Lazaefleld, Elihu Katz, Berelson and Hazelduadet.
This theory was the first to state that perhaps mass media did not exert the kind of influence on the audience as was generally believed .
The audience arrived at decisions not directly under the influence of mass media but more by means of interaction among themselves.This was the finding of a study conducted way back in the 1940’s during U.S presidential elections.

6. Mass Media v i u
Step 1 h a g b j t f e s c k d
Step 2 r l q m p o n

7. Uses and Effect Theories
Agenda Setting Theory
Reinforcement Theory
Catharsis and Narcosis Theory
Theory of Incidental Effects
Cultivation Theory
Spiral of Silence theory
Third Person effect
Social Learning Theory
Uses and Gratification Theory

8. 1.Agenda Setting Theory
The first systematic study of Agenda Setting was conducted by Malcom Mc Comb and Donald Shaw during the American Presidential Campaign of 1968; the duo focused on the 100 undecided voters of Chapple Hill who were susceptible to the media’s agenda.
They made an content analysis of all the media channels used by residents of Chappell Hill; and found an interlink between the priorities of issues identified by the media and those identified by the group of respondents.

9. 1. Agenda Setting Theory (Cont.)
In another study conducted by G.Rayfunkhouse in the 1960s, an attempt was made to study the relationship between public rating of important issues and media content. He also studied the relationship between media coverage and reality.
Rayfunkhouse found that the issues to which the public gave a high ranking were also issues which media gave coverage. Similarly he attributed that media coverage did not correspond to reality.

10. 2. Reinforcement Theory
This is also called the limited effects model. Klapper who propounded this theory stated that mass media has limited effects on its audience. It merely reinforces existing values and attitudes.
Lazarsfeld and Merton further stated that the mass media cannot be relied upon to work for changes.

11. 3. Catharsis and Narcosis Theory: Narcosis Theory
This theory was propounded by Lazarsfeld, Merton and Winn.
They argue that the media have a “Narcotising dysfunction”. They state that the audience are so engrossed/lullified during their exposure to mass media particularly A/V media , that it becomes difficult for them to make logical reactions.
It engrosses the audience attention to the extent that it prevents them from taking any logical decisions.

12. 3. Catharsis and Narcosis Theory: Catharsis Theory
This theory was propounded by Semyour Feshbatch.
Feshbatch’s experiments in the lab. showed that media content particularly of violence helps to vent out frustration. He studied the same by setting up two groups of respondents in control and experimental setup.
Students of both groups were exposed to verbal abuse, later the experimental group was shown a violent film while the other group was not shown the same.
Findings indicated that the experimental group respondents had feelings of less hostility then that of the control group.

13. 4. Theory of Incidental Effects
This theory was formulated by Aldous Huxley.
He stated that media effects were limited to copying of style, mannerism, etc.
Huxley stated that television could be an effective agent of incidental learning among children.

14. 5. Cultivation Theory / Cultural Indicators Theory
This theory was formulated by George Gerbner.
Heavy TV viewing tends to induce audiences to adopt perception and values which were constantly portrayed in different programmes.
This phenomenon was more dominant among heavy TV watchers than those who watched less.E.g.: Soaps on TV inculcate a picture of affluence all around.

15. 6. Spiral of Silence Theory
This theory was formulated by Noell Neumann.
This theory postulates that individuals have a quasi- statistical sense organ by which they determine their opinion represent the minority point of view. In such a case they remain silent.

16. 6. Spiral of Silence Theory (Cont.)
In her analysis of German elections, Neuman states that individuals hate to be isolated from their fellow beings and thus tend to follow the dominant opinion.
Thus Mass media shapes:
as to which opinion is dominant
which impressions are increasing
which opinions one can utter in public without fear of being isolated.

17. 7. The Third Person effect
Theory propounded by W. Phillips Davison
The hypothesis suggests that people tend to over-estimate the impact of mass media on others rather than themselves.
Mass communication messages will have greater impact on others than on themselves; due to this perception they take action.
Thus people are more influenced by media than they really think they are

18. 8. Social Learning Theory
Theory propounded by Albert Bandura
Many effects of Mass Media can happen through the process of social learning.
Human Beings learn things by observation and model behaviors.

19. 9.Uses and Gratification theory
The theory is propounded by Elihu katz, Denis Mcquail and Michale Gurewitch
This theory studied how the audience utilised the media.

20. 9.Uses and Gratification theory (Cont.)
Based on Audience study a set of gratifications were determined.
Cognitive Needs (Acquiring Information)
Affective Needs (emotions, pleasure and aesthetic experience)
Personal Integrative Needs(Strengthening credibility, confidence, status)
Social Integrative Need (Strengthening contacts with family)
Tension Release Needs( Escape and Diversion)

21. Normative Theories of Press
What is Normative theory?
Normative theory tells what should be the communication model.

22. Normative Theories of Press AUTHORITARIAN THEORY
The term was first coined by Sibert which refers to an arrangement in which the press is subordinate to state power.This theory is more relevant to repressive or dictatorial regime where there is press censorship

23. Normative Theories of Press FREE PRESS THEORY
Also known as the Libertarian theory, is based on the fundamental right of an individual to freedom of expression. The same is seen in the first amendment to the American constitution.
However Milton, Stuart and Mill state that Press Freedom cannot be provided unrestrained.

24. Normative Theories of Press SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY THEORY
The term was first originated in the Hutchins committee report-1947 that was appointed in the U.S. According to it the press had not fulfilled the informational, social and moral needs of the society. It led to the establishment of regulatory bodies like PRESS COUNCIL

25. Normative Theories of Press COMMUNIST MEDIA THEORY
Also known as SOVIET MEDIA theory, is based on the basic tenets and Marx and Engels.
It envisages that media should be under the control of the working class. There was no private ownership of the media and was required to serve positive functions in the society relating to information, education , motivation and mobilsation.
According to this theory media must work under the control of the state.

26. Thank You. mrinaliimc@yahoo.in