1. QUESTIONS 1. If the Earth were twice its distance from the Sun, by how much would its effective temperature decrease? 2. What is the most abundant greenhouse gas in the Earth’s atmosphere? 3. Is ammonia (NH3) a greenhouse gas? 4. What is the radiative equilibrium temperature of the Earth’s surface at the poles in winter? What prevents this temperature from ever being achieved? 5. How would you observe savanna and forest fires from space? (Clue: fires are hot). 6. What is the SIGN of the radiative forcing caused by - an increase in atmospheric CO 2 ? - an increase in the solar constant? - an increase in albedo? 7. Increasing CO 2 causes COOLING of the stratosphere. Why?

2. PRINCIPLES OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY

3. SUN AND EARTH E/M SPECTRA As we saw last class…Emission = f(T) [Stefan-Boltzmann Law] NOTE: Sun Planck function actually much larger (higher T), normalized here

4. RADIATION IN THE ATMOSPHERE Incoming radiation: solar (blackbody emission at 6000K). Radiation drives atmospheric chemistry by dissociating molecules into fragments that are often highly reactive. Photon energy per mole: Radiation of interest for tropospheric chemistry is from visible (~700 nm) to near-UV (~290 nm). The corresponding energies are sufficient to break chemical bonds such as: weak O 2 -O bond in ozone (~ 100 kJ/mol) moderately strong C-H bond in formaldehyde(~368 kJ/mol) nm Lower wavelengths are attenuated as they travel through the atmosphere (by molecular O 2 and N 2 and ozone)

5. MAJOR PHOTODISSOCIATING SPECIES NO 2 + hv  NO + O O 3 + hv  O( 3 P) + O 2 315 < < 1200 nm O( 1 D) + O 2 < 315 nm HNO 2 + hv  NO + OH < 400 nm H 2 O 2 + hv  2OH NO 3 + hv  NO + O 2 NO 3 “stores” NOx at night NO 2 + O HCHO + hv  HCO + H CO + H 2 dominant path for > 320 nm A photon (hv) is a reactant. Reminder: λ > 290 nm only in the troposphere!

6. EXAMPLE: PHOTODISSOCIATION OF OXYGEN Estimate the wavelength of light at which photodissociation of O 2 into 2 ground-state oxygen atoms: O 2 + hv  O + O The enthalpy for this reaction is  H=498.4 kJ/mol (endothermic) So O 2 cannot photodissociate at wavelengths longer than about 240 nm

7. GASES: GHGs are absorbing in the IR(as seen for example for CO 2 ) Gases can scatter in the UV/visible  Rayleigh scattering LIGHT: REFLECTING, SCATTERING AND ABSORBING AEROSOLS: Absorption depends on composition (eg. black carbon) Scattering explained by Mie Theory  reduction in visibility

8. BEER-LAMBERT LAW AND OPTICAL DEPTH Beer-Lambert Law: Attenuation of radiation  This holds if number density does not vary significantly over dx I = radiation flux  =absorption cross section [cm 2 /molecules] n = number density l = path length (x 2 -x 1 )  = optical depth [dimensionless]  = solar zenith angle (SZA)  z TOA Top of Atmosphere l=z TOA /cos(  ) If account for angle of light transmitted to Earth’s surface (at angle):

9. ACTINIC FLUX ACTINIC RADIATION: the integrated radiation (photon flux) from all directions to a sphere (sum of direct, scattered, reflected light) ACTINIC FLUX (J): Number of photons absorbed by species X:  ( )=absorption cross section [cm 2 /molecules] J( )=actinic flux [photons/cm 2 /s] F a ( )=number of photons abs by X [photons/cm 3 /s] [X] is in units of number density Actinic flux will be modified by SZA (thus time, season, latitude), as well as by scattering and absorption by gases and particles. The absorption is mostly from stratospheric O 3 (the ozone column). Must also consider not only direct solar, but also scattered/ reflected radiation  need surface albedo estimates  Computational codes developed to calculate actinic flux for different constituent profiles, angles, locations

10. COMPUTING RATES OF PHOTOLYSIS Molecule is excited into an electronically excited state by absorption of a photon: A + hv  A* The excited molecule may release the absorbed energy by any of: 1. DissociationA*  B1 + B2 2. Direct ReactionA* + B  C1 + C2 3. FluorescenceA*  A + hv 4. Collisional deactivationA* + M  A + M 5. IonizationA*  A + + e - The relative efficiency of each of these is described by the quantum yield (  i ): number of excited molecules of A* undergoing a process (i) to the total number of photons absorbed. By Stark-Einstein Law,  I = 1 You may come across the “overall quantum yield of a stable product A” (  A ) which is defined as the number of molecules of A formed over the number of photons absorbed.  A > 1 for a chain reaction

11. COMPUTING RATES OF PHOTOLYSIS (CONT’D) The total rate of photolysis of X: Rate [molecules/cm 3 /s] j = photolysis rate constant [s -1 ] Note, the use of j distinguishes the photolysis rate constant from other rate constants (k). Example: Two photochemical processes for formaldehyde to produce (H+HCO) or(H 2 +CO) thus,  ( )=  H+HCHO +  H2+CO To compute the rate of disappearance of HCHO according to 1 st rxn use only  H+HCHO

12. DISCOVERY OF PHOTOCHEMICAL REACTIONS IN THE ATMOSPHERE Some observations which remained unexplained until ~1960: 1.NO is oxidized to NO 2 in photochemical smog  the known thermal oxidation rxn is too slow: 2NO + O 2  2NO 2 2.Organics are rapidly oxidized during smog formation Known before 1970, for example for propylene were rxns: a. C 3 H 6 + O 3  products b. C 3 H 6 + O  products with rates too slow compared to propylene loss rates Leighten (1961) speculated that free radicals might be formed from organics and involved in oxidation: Ralkyl (formed from any hydrocarbon group, eg. CH 4, C 2 H 8 ) RO 2 alkyl peroxy ROalkoxy OHhydoxyl HO 2 hydroperoxy Hhydrogen free radical Time (min) Propylene Loss Rate Observed Reaction 1 Reaction 2

13. DISCOVERY OF PHOTOCHEMICAL REACTIONS IN THE ATMOSPHERE (cont’d) In mid 1960’s reactions of CO or hydrocarbons with OH were found to be rapid. Chain reactions were proposed in 60’s which regenerate OH, convert NO  NO 2 and involve HC species: CO + OH  H + CO 2 (1) H + O 2 + M  HO 2 + M(2) HO 2 + NO  OH + NO 2 (3) Note the chemical effects: oxidation of CO (CO  CO 2 ) conversion of NO  NO 2 (as observed to occur in atmosphere) reactions are fast (as observed in atm) free radicals are used up, but also created in each step This sequence (1-3) is important in the clean troposphere. In the polluted air, organic species play a role similar to that of CO.

14. GENERATION OF OH OH radical drives the daytime chemistry of both polluted and clean atmosphere What is the source of OH (and other radicals)? Major source: O 3 + hv (  320 nm)  O( 1 D) + O 2 O( 1 D) + H 2 O  2OH Other sources (to be discussed later): HONO + hv ( < 400 nm)  OH + NO nitrous acid (photodissociation) H 2 O 2 + hv ( < 370 nm)  2OH hydrogen peroxide HO 2 + NO  OH +NO 2 (sources and sinks of HO 2 effectively sources and sinks of OH  HOx)

15. FREE RADICAL KINETICS EXAMPLE: ETHANE PYROLYSIS Step 1: inititation (generates free radicals) C 2 H 6 + M  2 CH 3 + M(1) (thermal initiation step) 1.Products we expect are generated in (3), (4), (5) and (7) 2.“Side products are generated in (2), (8), (9), (10) 3.If there were no termination reaction, (1) would only need to occur once to start the “chain” 4.The “chain length” is the average number of times the chain sequence is repeated before a chain-propagating radical is terminated 5.Rate is NOT equal to k[C 2 H 6 ]! Need reaction mechanism to describe the kinetics, even if net result is described by (*) C 2 H 6  C 2 H 4 + H 2 (*) C2H6C2H6 C2H4C2H4 H2H2 Step 2: chain propagation (free radical  free radical) CH 3 + C 2 H 6  CH 4 + C 2 H 5 (2) C 2 H 5 + M  C 2 H 4 + H + M(3) H + C 2 H 6  H 2 + C 2 H 5 (4) Step 3: termination: two free radicals combine to form a stable molecule 2H  H 2 (5) H + C 2 H 5  C 2 H 6 (6) H + C 2 H 5  C 2 H 4 + H 2 (7) H + CH 3  CH 4 (8) CH 3 + C 2 H 5  C 3 H 8 (9) 2C 2 H 5  C 4 H 10 (10)

16. FREE RADICAL KINETICS EXAMPLE: ETHANE PYROLYSIS C 2 H 6 + M  2 CH 3 + M(1) CH 3 + C 2 H 6  CH 4 + C 2 H 5 (2) C 2 H 5 + M  C 2 H 4 + H + M(3) H + C 2 H 6  H 2 + C 2 H 5 (4) 2H  H 2 (5) H + C 2 H 5  C 2 H 6 (6) H + C 2 H 5  C 2 H 4 + H 2 (7) H + CH 3  CH 4 (8) CH 3 + C 2 H 5  C 3 H 8 (9) 2C 2 H 5  C 4 H 10 (10) To determine overall rate: Each step is an “elementary” reaction so can be written: R1 = k1[C 2 H 6 ][M] d[C 2 H 6 ]/dt = -R1 + …. OPTIONS: 1.Write mass conversation eqns for all species and solve ODEs numerically to get [C 2 H 6 ](t) 2.Use simplifying assumptions to get analytical expression for d[C 2 H 6 ]/dt Assumption: SS applies to free radicals: for C 2 H 5 :R3 = R4 (consider only propogation reactions for now) analysis shows k3[M] << k4[C 2 H 6 ] so can argue that for termination (10) is most important for H:R4 = R3 for CH 3 :R2 = 2R1 for C 2 H 5 :R3 + R10 = R2 + R4 Plug results into rate equation for ethane to get:

17. What is steady state [O 3 ]? SS for O:R2=R1  [O] depends on [NO 2 ] SS for NO 2 :R1=R3 SS for NO:R3=R1 SS for O 3 :R3=R2  sub R1 for R2 from above: BASIC PHOTOCHEMICAL CYCLE OF NO 2, NO AND O 3 NOx is released in combustion processes, also saw that there are natural sources, such as lightning. The following is a “fast” photochemical cycle with no net consumption or production of species: NO 2 + hv  NO + O(1) O + O 2 + M  O 3 + M(2) O 3 + NO  NO 2 + O 2 (3) NO NO 2 hv O3O3 O3O3 This is the photostationary state relation. The steady state concentration of ozone is controlled by the ratio of NO 2 to NO here. However, 3 rxn cycle is incomplete for predicting ozone concentrations  don’t forget carbon compounds!