1. Process Control Methods 1

2. Open-Loop Control 2 Process control operations are performed automatically by either open-loop or closed-loop systems Processes controlled only by set-point commands without feedback are open-loop Open-loop systems are used in applications where simple processes are performed Open-loop systems are relatively inexpensive

3. 3 Closed-Loop Control Closed-loop control systems are more effective than open- loop systems With the addition of a feedback loop they become self-regulating Components of a closed- loop system include: – The primary element - sensor – The controlled variable – The measured variable – The control signal – The final correcting element

4. 4 Process Behavior The objective of process control is to cause a controlled variable to remain at a constant value at or near some desired set-point The controlled variable changes because of: – A disturbance appears – Load demands vary – Set points are adjusted

5. Process Behavior Example Flow through the pipe is the process Fluid flow rate is the controlled variable Valve position is the set point Demand for the fluid downstream is the load Variance in upstream pressure is the disturbance 5

6. 6 Single-Variable Control Loop Several process variables are controlled at once in a typical production machine Usually, only one individual feedback loop is required to control each variable Single-variable control loops consist of the following elements: – Measuring device – Transducer/transmitter – Controller – Final Control Element

7. 7 Response Time of the Instrument All instruments have a time lag - the time from when a variable is measured till the corrective action is taken Factors affecting lag: – Response time of sensor – Time lag of transducer – Distance the signal must travel – Time required for the controller to process – Distance control signal must travel – Time lag of the final correcting element

8. 8 Time Lag The controlled variable itself may contribute to lag problems because of inertia in the variable Lag due to inertia of the variable is referred to as pure lag Another factor that affects time lag is dead time - this is the elapsed time from when the deviation occurs and corrective action takes place

9. Illustration of Pure Lag 9

10. 10 Selecting a Controller The controller mode selection is based upon the requirements of the process and one of the following control modes will be used: – On/Off – Proportional – Integral – Derivative

11. On-Off Control Used for slow acting operations where lag is unavoidable Final correcting element is either fully-on or fully-off The primary drawback of on-off control is the rapid switching of the final control element On-off differential or hysteresis is programmed into the controller Deadband refers to the differing levels at which a controller switches on and off 11

12. 12 Continuous Control On/Off control is acceptable for process where the variable is set between two limits For processes where the variable needs to be kept at particular setpoint level, proportional control is used Proportional action can be accomplished in two ways: – Time Proportioning Method – Amplitude Proportional Method

13. Time Proportioning Is a method whereby the output of the controller is continually switched on and off On versus off times are varied dependent upon process requirements 13

14. 14 Amplitude Proportional Most common technique to produce a proportional signal The control signal is proportional in amplitude to the error signal The signal may be amplified and the amplification may be referred to as proportional gain and proportional band

15. Proportional Gain Comparison Level control at a gain of 1 15

16. Proportional Gain Comparison (Gain set at 2) 16

17. Proportional Band Proportional band is defined as the percentage change in the controlled variable that causes the final correcting element to go through 100 percent of its range PB=PB= Controlled Variable % Change Final Correcting Element % Change 17

18. Integral Control Because of the introduction of offset in a control process, proportional control alone is often used in conjunction with Integral control Offset is the difference between set point and the measured value after corrective action has taken place 18

19. Reset Action Integral control is also referred to as reset control as the set point is continuously reset as long as an error is present Integral adjustments that affect the output are labeled 3 ways: – Gain - expressed as a whole number – Reset - Expressed in repeats per minute – Integral Time - Expressed in minutes per reset 19

20. Derivative Mode For rapid load changes, the derivative mode is typically used to prevent oscillation in a process system The derivative mode responds to the rate of change of the error signal rather than its amplitude Derivative mode is never used by itself, but in combination with other modes Derivative action cannot remove offset 20

21. Control Mode Summary 21

22. 22 Tuning the Controller Fine-tuning is the process to optimize the controller operation by adjusting the following settings: – Gain setting (proportional mode) – Reset rate (integral mode) – Rate (derivative mode) Three steps are taken when tuning a systems – Study the control loop – Obtain clearance for tuning procedures – Confirm the correction operation of the system components

23. 23 Trial-and-Error Tuning Does not use mathematical methods, instead a chart recorder is used and several bump tests are made in the proportional and integral modes Trial-and-error tuning is very time consuming and requires considerable experience on the part of the technician or operator

24. 24 Ziegler-Nichols Tuning Methods Two formal procedures for tuning control loops: – Continuous cycling method – Reaction curve method

25. 25 Continuous Cycling Method The continuous cycling method analyzes the process by forcing the controlled variable to oscillate in even, continuous cycles The time duration of one cycle is called an ultimate period. The proportional setting that causes the cycling is called the ultimate proportional value These two values are then used in mathematical formulas to calculate the controller settings

26. 26 Continuous Cycle Calculations Proportional only controller Proportional Gain – K c = G u x 0.5 K C = proportional gain, G u = ultimate gain Proportional Band – PB = Pb u x 2 PB = proportional band Pb u = ultimate proportional band

27. Continuous Cycling Formulas 27

28. 28 Ziegler-Nichols Reaction Curve Tuning Method This method avoids the forced oscillations that are found in the continuous cycle tuning method Cycling should be avoided if the process is hazardous or critical This method uses step changes and the rate at which the process reacts is recorded The graph produces three different values used in mathematical calculations to determine the proper controller settings

29. Reaction Curve Tuning Formulas 29

30. Direct Synthesis Method The direct synthesis method uses the same procedures to analyze the process times as the Ziegler-Nichols reaction curve method One advantage of this method is that it directly matches (synthesizes) synthesizes the process The first step in this method is perform a bump test and recording the dynamic settling time Depending upon the complexity of the process, one of several dynamic response signals may develop as shown on the right 30

31. Direct Synthesis Tuning Calculations 31

32. 32 Advanced Control Techniques Some complex manufacturing operations require more precise control than available with PID controllers Four Techniques frequently used are: – Cascade control – Feed forward control – Ratio control – Adaptive control

33. Cascade Control Cascade control systems use a second feedback loop with a separate sensor and controller Cascade control is effective in overcoming lag in some systems 33

34. Feedforward Control Feedforward control measures a variable that enters a process and takes corrective action if it is affected by a disturbance, reducing or eliminating deviation from the set point 34

35. Ratio Control Used in mixing systems where an uncontrolled flow of material (wild flow) is monitored and used to controlthe second material which is controlled according to the desired ratio between the two components 35

36. 36 Adaptive Control To accommodate a nonlinear process, a microelectronic controller uses software that has adaptive control capabilities to compensate for nonlinear transducers and sensors

37. END 37

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