1. Neurological investigations Ann Johnston SpR Neurology Cardiff

2. Neurology

6. Approach Same as CVS/Resp/GIT History is most important tool Diagnosis from history Investigations are supportive Investigations almost never diagnostic

7. Sleuth work Story-tellers Historians Evidence Help pts understand their story

8. Evidence Story primary source secondary source eye-witnessed account Numbers Pictures Too difficult box ???

9. Neurological investigations Numbers Blood Cerebrospinal fluid CSFPictures CT MRI Angiogram PET

15. CSF Produced by choroid plexus (95%) 500ml/day Energy dependent process ATPase pump Absorbed by arachnoid villi

16. 1.Good practice to perform CT brain prior to LP 2. To assess for signs of raised intracranial pressure …. papilloedema

17. Complications of LP Headache – commonest Related to persistent dural leak Positional Most resolve within 7-14 days Commoner in young women Risk factors – bad technique, needle size Treatment – fluids, bedrest, analgesia, caffeine, blood-patch Brain herniation Bleeding

18. CSF Opening pressure Cell counts – wcc, rcc Microscopy, culture, staining Biochemistry – protein, glucose Xanthochromia Oligoclonal bands Cytology Others – HSV, ACE, lyme, Protein 14-3-3

19. CSF Appearance Clear and colourless Cloudy if >200 WCCs Cloudy if >400 RBCs Xanthochromia Yellow colour Appears RBC > 500

20. CSF cytology Cytology should be done promptly after LP Lymphocyte are predominant leukocyte No RBCs should be found in CSF Unless traumatic tap Should be in same ratio as WCC:RBC in blood Subtract 1 WCC for every 700 RBCs

21. CSF protein Non specific indicator of disease  protein – breakdown of blood-brain barrier  protein levels occur in dural leaks and intracranial hypotension Major immunoglobulin in CSF IgG Oligoclonal bands occur in some CNS diseases

22. CSF Glucose Derived from the serum Reflects previous 4 hrs systemic glucose levels CSF:blood 0.6 Check simultaneous serum glucose  glucose – bacterial, fungal or TB meningitis, inflammatory processes, carcinomatous meningitis and SAH

23. CSF values Opening pressure 10 – 20 cm CSF Protein < 0.4g/l Glucose ~ 2/3 plasma glucose

24. Neurophysiology Electrics Electroencephalogram EEG Nerve Conduction Studies NCS Electromyography EMG Visual and sensory evoked potentials VEPs SSEPs

25. EEG

27. Cases

28. Cases Helpful hints Story is the most important Clues from history Examination findings Prior to looking at the investigations Piece it together

29. Case 1 A 19-year-old university student complains of headache of 8 hours duration, she does not like the bright lights and has vomited twice. On examination she is sweaty and there is no obvious rash. The casualty doctor is worried about her and requests a CT scan of brain, which is normal and then proceeds to lumbar puncture

30. Appearance: cloudy, with no organisms on gram stain WCC: 228/mm 3 (neutrophils) RBC: 4/mm 3 Glucose: 2.1mmol/l ~ plasma glucose: 5.9mmol/l Protein: 1.6g/l Describe the CSF….. What is the diagnosis? Treatment?

31. Case 2 A 16-year-old schoolgirl has been feeling lethargic and unwell for the past 2-3 days. She has a headache, low-grade fever and does not like bright lights. Examination is normal. CSF opening pressure at time of lumbar puncture is 17cm CSF. The following results are obtained.

32. Appearance: Clear, with no organisms on gram stain WCC: 101/mm 3 (>95% lymphocytes) RBC: 9/mm 3 Glucose: 3.9mmol/l ~ plasma glucose 5.8mmol/l Protein: 0.9g/l What is the most likely diagnosis?

33. Lymphocyte predominate CSF Viral meningitis Partially treated bacterial meningitis TB Neurosarcoid SLE Bechets Cryptococcus

34. Case 3 A 18 year old girl presented after 3-4 weeks of headache and vomiting. She had been admitted to hospital on several occasions over the course of her illness but discharged home following a normal CT brain. She was not making much progress, so attended her GP who diagnosed sinusitis and prescribed a course of amoxicillin. With no further improvement she was readmitted due to the persistence of her mother.

35. On examination her temperature was 37 2, she had a VIth nerve palsy, and fundoscopy was as shown CRP < 2mg/l WCC 4 How do you manage this patient?

36. Opening pressure 40 cm CSF WCC 230 – 100% lymphocytes No organisms on staining or culture Protein 2.4g/l Glucose 3.1 mmol/l with plasma 5.9mmol/l What is the most likely diagnosis?

37. Case 4 A 48 year old suddenly collapses while watching a football match. He loses consciousness and on regaining it complains of a severe occipital headache and vomits profusely. What is your provisional diagnosis? How do you investigate him?

38. Case 5 A 35 year old female, complains of left orbital pain, like a knife! She also notices some zig- zag lines in the outer aspect of her vision. Within 10 minutes she has tingling in her left arm and within a further 5 minutes also in her left leg. She has had several similar episodes in the past and on occasions has been dyshasic. What is the diagnosis?

39. Case 6 A 79 year old man presents with a gradual deterioration in mental state, he also has had difficulty in walking and has had frequent falls. How would you investigate him?

40. What other piece of clinical information may be helpful in aiding the diagnosis?

41. Case 7 A 72 year old lady presents with double vision on left lateral gaze. She also has had increasing headaches over the last 3-4 weeks. CT brain was normal. CSF – WCC 600 – 90% lymphocytes Protein – 3.1g/l Glucose 0.7 ~ plasma 5.4mmol/l

42. What is the most likely diagnosis?

43. Case 8 A 18 year old female is celebrating her A-level results with her family in a restaurant. Just after eating her main course while seated, she collapses onto the table. Some jerks are noticed in her limbs. These settle spontaneously. She regains consciousness quickly and makes a complete recovery.

44. Due to parental concern, she attends A&E, where she tells staff that prior to the episode her hearing became muffled and she felt as those the ‘world was closing in on her…’ What is the diagnosis? Would you perform any investigations?

45. Case 9 A 15 year old schoolboy, has had 2 similar episodes, which were witnessed by his brother. Both occurred from sleep. He was seen to be thrashing about the bed and groaning for about 2- 3 mins. On one occasion he bite the side of his tongue and was incontinent of urine.

46. The following day he complained of painful muscles. One of these events occurred after he had been out late at a school formal. He is otherwise well, but is occasionally clumsy in the mornings. Any other questions? What is the diagnosis? Would you do any investigations

47. Case 10 19 year old art student has a one month history of daily constant headache and flashing lights in her vision if she turns her head quickly, no vomiting and a pulsing sensation in her ears. She has gained weight in the last few months and has a BMI of 31. Examination demonstrates bilateral optic disc blurring and a left VIth nerve palsy. What investigations do you do? What is the likely diagnosis?

48. Case 11 55 year old lorry driver presented with headaches worst in the mornings over the last 9 months. He smokes 20 per day. He describes difficulty in concentrating during work and excessive daytime tiredness. He is overweight, with slightly raised BP, 165/95 mm Hg. Any other questions? Any investigations? What is the diagnosis?

49. Case 12 30 year old gym instructor, describes one episode of severe occipital headache while exercising vigorously in the gym. He also reports another similar episode of severe headache during sexual intercourse after which he vomited. No signs on examination. What are your thoughts? Would you investigate him? Any treatment?

50. Thank-you, any questions ?