1. Day 1: Research Questions and Conceptual Models Wendy Machalicek
IES Summer Research Institute: Constructing Single-Case Designs Based on Research Questions and Logic Models
Acknowledgement: Dr. Rob Horner
Day 1: Research Questions and Conceptual Models
Wendy Machalicek

2. Objectives Four core elements of single case research questions
Add a specification of “expected effect”
Functions and features of conceptual models within Single Case methods.

3. Research Question Dependent variable:
Assumption:
You are all excellent at writing research questions. You were funded. This is more about training new scholars
Four Elements:
Dependent variable:
The valued outcome or focus of the study
Independent variable
The variable that is actively manipulated by the researcher and is assumed to be causally linked to change in the dependent variable
Functional relation (causal relationship)
Documentation of description, prediction and control of change in dependent variable via manipulation of the independent variable.
Indicate the change predicted (level, trend, variability)
Predicted change in pattern
Level, trend, variability

4. Research Question Examples
Is there a functional relation between instruction to build reading fluency and increased level of scores on reading comprehension assessments?
Walking in water = IV
Improved gait for children with gait imbalance = DV
(write a research question)
Is there a functional relation between use of escape-extinction and reduction in the level of escape-motivated food refusal?
Write a research question with something other than “level” as the predicted pattern of change.
Is there a functional relation between “water walking training” and level of scores on the “gait precision index” (GPI) under typical conditions?
-trend, variability
Identify: IV, DV, Functional Relation, Expected Pattern

5. Examples:
Does functional communication training reduce problem behavior?
Is there a functional relation between functional communication training and reduction in the level of problem behavior for typical elementary school students?
Is “time-delay prompting” or “least-to-most prompting” more effective in teaching self-help skills for young children with severe intellectual disabilities?
Is there a functional relation between use of “time-delay prompting” versus “least-to-most prompting” on the rate of skill acquisition (slope) by young children with severe intellectual disabilities?

6. Research Question non- Examples
The study will provide a systematic analysis of the reduction in stuttering by adolescents.
Self-delivered consequences are a core element of any analysis of self-determination, and will be the focus of this research investigation.

7. What research questions are appropriate for single case research?
Examine effects of introducing or manipulating an independent variable on change in one or more dependent variables.
Examine effects of alternating between two or more interventions on change in a dependent variable.
Examine effects of adding or removing a component of a multi-component intervention on change in a dependent variable.

8. The Role of Conceptual Models in Design of Single Case Research
Conceptual Model Defined
A conceptual model identifies:
(a) the dependent variable,
(b) the multiple contextual variables that affect the dependent variable
(c) theoretical mechanism(s) by which the existing variable(s) in the natural setting affect the dependent variable, and
(d) the conceptual relationship among contextual variables.(interactions)
During the early to mid-1990s, funders began increasing their emphasis on outcomes and accountability. As a result, people
began paying more attention to TOCs and logic models and often created their own definitions of these concepts to meet
their needs.
A logic model is a tactical explanation of the process of producing a given outcome. It outlines the program inputs and
activities, the outputs they will produce, and the connections between those outputs and the desired outcomes.
a logic model can be used to explain how
that outcome will be produced. Thus, one TOC could actually be linked to a number of logic models, because a logic model
could be constructed to illustrate how to produce each outcome in the TOC map. The TOC summarizes work at a strategic
level, while a logic model would be used to illustrate the tactical, or program-level, understanding of the change process.
Context
Variable
Valued Social Outcome: DV
Setting Conditions
Distinguish between
“conceptual model” and “logic model”
Variable
Variable

9. What is the value of the Conceptual Model?
Promotes development of a program of research
Improves precision of research question
Defines features of study that should be held constant when main Independent Variable is manipulated.
Guides development of measurement
Measurement of dependent variable(s)
Measurement of independent variable(s)
Provides foundation for adaptations to the study if expected results do not materialize.
Clarifies interaction effects (e.g., Cascading Logic)

10. Cascading Logic Intervention: Teacher Training
Change in Teacher Behavior
Change in Student Behavior
Avoid
Intervention:
Teacher Training
Change in Student Behavior

11. Building a Conceptual Model
Setting Conditions
How is social problem defined?
Context
Variables
That
Affect
Core Variables
Core
The Dependent Variable
(what is it?
How to measure it?)
Core
mechanism
Core
Start with your DV and conduct “backwards mapping” to ID core variables/mechanisms (one includes your intervention), context variables that affect core variables

12. Building a Conceptual Model
Is there a functional relation between high versus low rates of instructional pacing and level of classroom disruption and non-compliance?
Classroom expectations defined and taught
State and Federal emphasis on academic and social success for all students
School-wide behavior support practices
Classroom disruption and non-compliance
Curriculum content
Instructional pacing
Opportunities to respond
Rate of instructional success
Write a research question focused on the impact of changing the rate of instructional pacing on classroom disruption.

13. % of intervals with verbal and/or physical aggression
Example: Bullying
Peer / bystander attention for bullying
Reprimand or period of time without attention: immediate antecedent
School-wide discipline systems:
__________
School-wide expectations
School-wide consequences
Social rewards for appropriate behavior
Victim attention
Bullying:
% of intervals with verbal and/or physical aggression
Limited social initiation skills
Tangible objects
Adult models
Media models and video examples
Self-delivered consequences

14. Scott Ross & Rob Horner Utah State University and University of Oregon
Bully Prevention
In Positive Behavior Support
Scott Ross & Rob Horner Utah State University and University of Oregon

15. Elements of Effective Bully Prevention
School-wide PBIS
Data Use
Bully Prevention Logic
Faculty Implementation
Student Use of BP-PBIS
Advanced Support

16. Core Features of an Effective Bully Prevention Effort
Five Student Skills
For Faculty/Staff
School-wide behavioral expectations (respect)
Stop routine when faced with disrespectful behavior
Bystander stop routine when observing disrespectful behavior
Stopping routine if someone tells you to “stop”
A recruit help routine to recruit adult help if you feel unsafe
Agreement on logic for bully prevention effort
Strategy for teaching students core skills
Strategy for follow-up and consistency in responding
Clear data collection and data use process
Advanced support options

17. social culture Predictable, consistent, positive and safe
(expectations defined, taught, acknowledged)
Stop
Change in the rewards for bullying
Change in likelihood of bullying
Everyone can identify “respectful” and non-respectful behavior
Walk
Talk

18. Whole school implementation of SWPBIS
Ross, S. W., & Horner, R. H. (2009). Bully prevention in positive behavior support. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 42(4),
Three Schools
Six students identified for high rates of verbal and physical aggression toward others
Whole school implementation of SWPBIS
Whole school addition of Stop-Walk-Talk
Direct observation of problem behavior on playground

19. 72%
3.14
1.88
.88

20. 28% increase
19% decrease
BP-PBS, Scott Ross

21. 21% increase
22% decrease
Recipients of bullying said “stop” 30% of the time (a 28% increase from baseline),
helped the victim “walk” away 13% of the time (a 10% increase),
delivered a positive response 8% of the time (an 11% decrease),
delivered a negative response 15% of the time (a 19% decrease),
and delivered no response 34% of the time (a 9% decrease).
Bystanders of bullying said “stop” 22% of the time (a 21% increase),
helped the victim “walk” away 13% of the time (an 11% increase),
delivered a positive response 17% of the time (a 22% decrease),
delivered a negative response 8% of the time (a 10% decrease),
and delivered no response 41% of the time (a 1% increase).
BP-PBS, Scott Ross

22. Build a Conceptual Model Variables, Relationships, Mechanisms
Patterson et al
Antisocial boys: Coercion Theory
Engelmann & Carnine
Theory of Instruction
Walker
Social competence
Sugai
School-wide Positive Behavior Support

23. Examples of Conceptual Models
Social Learning Theory: Coercion Model (Patterson et al)
DV = antisocial behavior
IV = social interactions with adults
Mechanism = negative reinforcement
Prediction:
Adult contingent removal of demands based on tantrum will increase likelihood of tantrum.

24. Less likely to make requests/ demands
Sustainable Positive Behavior Support: Building Constructive vs. Coercive Relationships (Patterson et al)
Less likely to make requests/ demands
Coercion Cycle
Person A (adult)
Person B (child)
2. Responds with aversive event (B)
Delivery of aversive event (A)
Request, demand
Scream, tantrum
3. Aversive event (A) removed or reduced
4. Aversive event (B) removed
Remove request
Stop scream/tantrum

25. More likely to scream when demand is made
Sustainable Positive Behavior Support: Building Constructive vs. Coercive Relationships
More likely to scream when demand is made
Coercion Cycle
Person A (adult)
Person B (child)
2. Responds with aversive event (B)
Delivery of aversive event (A)
Request, demand
Scream, tantrum
3. Aversive event (A) removed or reduced
4. Aversive event (B) removed
Remove request
Stop scream/tantrum

26. More likely to remove demand when tantrum occurs
Sustainable Positive Behavior Support: Building Constructive vs. Coercive Relationships
More likely to remove demand when tantrum occurs
Coercion Cycle
Person A (adult)
Person B (child)
2. Responds with aversive event (B)
Delivery of aversive event (A)
Request, demand
Scream, tantrum
3. Aversive event (A) removed or reduced
4. Aversive event (B) removed
Remove request
Stop scream/tantrum

27. Effects of Coercion Model (Behavioral Mechanisms: Positive punishment, Negative reinforcement)
Parent teaches child to tantrum
Child teaches parent to
Decrease demands
Remove demands
The use of aversive events within a self-regenerating cycle.
Application to family dynamics
Application to school (teacher/student) dynamics
Application to personal relationships

28. Diagram Conceptual Model
Child Tantrum
Adult removal of demand given tantrum
Adult delivery of a request/ demand to do a non-preferred behavior
Dependent
Variable:
1. Likelihood of a tantrum following an adult request
Child Compliance
Adult delivery of rewards given compliance

29. Lucyshyn et al., 2013

30. Conceptual Model: First Step to Success (Walker)
K-3 Intervention
Identify student with problem behavior
Attach a “first step coach”
Teaching appropriate behavior
Prompts appropriate behavior
Reward appropriate behavior
Redirects problem behavior
Remove attention for problem behavior
Establish group contingencies
Apply additional consequences for problem behavior
Use “Red Card/Green Card” to transfer control to teacher
Direct observation of fidelity and impact to guide adaptation

31. Conceptual Model: First Step to Success

32. Rate of Praise from Teacher
Adult Attention
Disruptive Behavior
Task Difficulty
Peer Prompts
Rate of Praise from Teacher
Teacher attention
Dependent
Variable:
(a) Level of disruptive behavior, (b) academic engagement
Peer Attention
Academic Engagement
Escape from Tasks

33. Build a conceptual model for the following research question?
Is there a functional relation between improved level of oral reading fluency and immediacy of instructional feedback?
Repeated Reading: students are asked to read short and meaningful passages until the desired level of fluency is achieved for that passage. Students should be timed and receive systematic, corrective feedback from their teacher during repeated reading.
Peer-assisted learning strategies (PALS; L. S. Fuchs, Fuchs, Kazdan, & Allen, 1999; Mathes & Babyak, 2001): two students are paired together and asked to play the role of either the coach or the student. When the “student” reads, the “coach” listens and provides corrective feedback.
Tape-assisted reading: students are asked to read a passage along with an audio-recording of the passage.  Students may perform this task with a teacher or independently.
Slide and Glide: the teacher reads the first portion of a sentence and then the student finishes the sentence. This process is repeated throughout an entire passage.

34. Application Using a research area of interest to you
Build conceptual model
Define one or more research questions

35. Summary Research Questions Conceptual Model/Conceptual Logic
Include prediction of pattern of responding
Conceptual Model/Conceptual Logic
Define core conceptual variables to improve precision and flexibility