1. CS4315A. Berrached:CMS:UHD1 Operating Systems and Computer Organization Chapter 4

2. CS4315A. Berrached:CMS:UHD2 Operating System and Computer Organization Organization of Conventional Computers The ALU The Control Unit The Memory Unit I/O Devices Interrupts Hardware protection

3. CS4315A. Berrached:CMS:UHD3 Conventional Computer Organization

4. CS4315A. Berrached:CMS:UHD4 The ALU Status Registers Operands Result MDRMAR To/from main memory R1 R2 Rn …. Functional Unit CMD

5. CS4315A. Berrached:CMS:UHD5 Memory Data Access Main Memory

6. CS4315A. Berrached:CMS:UHD6 Program Specification

7. CS4315A. Berrached:CMS:UHD7 Machine Language

8. CS4315A. Berrached:CMS:UHD8 Control Unit

9. CS4315A. Berrached:CMS:UHD9 Control Unit Operation Instruction Fetch Phase: instruction is retrieved from memory Instruction Decode Phase: instruction is decoded and control signals generated Instruction Execute Phase: ALU op, memory data access, or I/O op is executed.

10. CS4315A. Berrached:CMS:UHD10 Control Unit Operation PC = ; IR = Memory[PC] ; haltFlag = CLEAR ; Decode(IR); while (haltFlag not SET) { Execute(IR); PC = PC + InstructionSize; IR = Memory[PC] ; Decode(IR); }

11. CS4315A. Berrached:CMS:UHD11 How does it all start? When the computer is started, the control unit branches to a fixed memory location; e.g. initial PC value hardwired. The fixed location is a ROM address that contains a small bootstrap loader. The bootstrap loader may be comprehensive enough to load the nucleus of the OS; Otherwise, it loads a loader program that does so. Once bootstrap phase is done, any program can be run by loading it in memory and loading its initial address in the PC (fetch-decode-exec algorithm)

12. CS4315A. Berrached:CMS:UHD12 Memory Unit Main (Primary) Memory holds both program and data while they are being executed by CPU. The main memory interface consists of the registers: MAR, MDR, CMD. Unit of information accessed depends on the width of memory and width of data bus. Max. addressing space depends on width of address bus. One request at a time. CPU and I/O devices may contend for memory access.

13. CS4315A. Berrached:CMS:UHD13 I/O devices Each I/O device consists of a device controller and the physical device itself. Devices: - storage devices: for permanent storage (e.g. disk, tape) - communication devices: to transfer data from the computer to another machine (e.g. keyboard, a terminal display, or a serial port to a modem or a network).

14. CS4315A. Berrached:CMS:UHD14 I/O Devices (cont.) Device controller: hardware that connects the device to the computer. –continuously monitors and controls the operation of the device. – provides an interface to the computer. The device communicates with the computer via a communication point called a port. Since several devices need to be connected to a computer, they are connected trough the bus.

15. CS4315A. Berrached:CMS:UHD15 I/O Devices (cont.) How does the computer communicate with an I/O device? –device controller has a set of registers: Command reg., Status reg., Data regs., Address regs, etc. –Status reg.: tells the computer the status of device: idle, busy, non functional, etc. –A process can request an operation from device by placing a command in device’s Command reg. –Data regs. Are used to exchange data –Address regs: used to indicate address of source/destination

16. CS4315A. Berrached:CMS:UHD16 I/O Devices (cont.) How does the computer operate on device controller registers? How does it identify each device? 1. Instruction set of the CPU may have special instructions to operate on I/O devices. E.g. Input DeviceN, DeviceRegisterN, Rn Output Rn, DeviceN, DeviceRegisterN etc. 2. Memory Mapped I/O

17. CS4315A. Berrached:CMS:UHD17 Memory Mapped I/O A set of memory addresses are reserved for I/O devices. E.g: 0000 to 3FF in Intel 8086 –each device is assigned a sub-set of memory addresses. –A memory address is assigned to each register of each device controller regular CPU instructions are used to interact with device controller.

18. CS4315A. Berrached:CMS:UHD18 I/O Devices (cont.) How does the CPU know when a device controller has completed the requested operation? 1. Polling: CPU continually check status register of device controller 2. Interrupt driven I/O: device controller sends a signal to CPU through the bus. –bus must support interrupts –CPU must include an interrupt flag –CPU instruction set must include instructions to test and set/clear interrupt flag.

19. CS4315A. Berrached:CMS:UHD19 Fetch-Execute Cycle with Interrupt PC = ; IR = Memory[PC] ; haltFlag = CLEAR ; Decode(IR); while (haltFlag not SET) { Execute(IR); PC = PC + InstructionSize; if (InterruptFlag) { save current PC; // (e.g. in system stack) PC = AddressOfInterruptHandler; } IR = Memory[PC] ; Decode(IR); }

20. CS4315A. Berrached:CMS:UHD20 Hardware Protection Dual-Mode Operation I/O Protection Memory Protection

21. CS4315A. Berrached:CMS:UHD21 Dual-Mode Operation Sharing system resources requires that the operating system ensures a level of protection to the users: –an incorrect program can not cause other programs to execute incorrectly – that a user program cannot have access resource for it does not have permission –some operations should not be performed by user programs

22. CS4315A. Berrached:CMS:UHD22 Dual-Mode Operation (Cont.) Provide hardware support to differentiate between at least two modes of operations: 1. User mode - execution done on behalf of the user 2. Supervisor mode (also called monitor mode or privileged mode or protected mode or system mode etc.) - execution done on behalf of the operating system

23. CS4315A. Berrached:CMS:UHD23 Dual-Mode Operation (Cont.) Mode bit is added to computer hardware (to CPU) to indicate the current mode. Supervisor mode (0)user mode (1) Instruction set: privileged instructions and non- privileged instructions - privileged instructions can be executed only in supervisor mode. Operating system can execute any instruction. Must insure that a user program can not execute privileged instructions directly.

24. CS4315A. Berrached:CMS:UHD24 Going from User Mode to Supervisor Mode When a user program need service from the OS (e.g. open a file, read, write, allocate memory etc.), it makes a system call: i.e. a call to one of the OS functions. OS functions must run in supervisor mode. User processes run in user mode. computer designers had to come up with some kind of approach that would allow a user process to miraculously change the CPU mode to supervisor and branch to one of these OS functions simultaneously. The trap instruction is just the ticket.

25. CS4315A. Berrached:CMS:UHD25 Trap Instruction A trap instruction is a machine-level instruction that: –Switches the CPU mode to supervisor –Looks up the address of the target function in a kernel- space trap table –Branches to the entry point of the kernel-space function using the address from the trap table The trick is that the instruction does all three of these steps rather than just one or two. And trap is the only instruction that sets the CPU mode bit to supervisor.

26. CS4315A. Berrached:CMS:UHD26 The system call is translated into a trap instruction –the trap instruction is a machine level instruction that is part of the instruction set of the processor The trap instruction will do the following: –change mode-bit to supervisor mode –jump to a trap handler which will determine which OS function is being requested etc.

27. CS4315A. Berrached:CMS:UHD27 Dual-Mode Operation (Cont.) Processor must provide the following: A Mode-bit flag Instruction set: privileged instructions and non- privileged instructions A trap instruction

28. CS4315A. Berrached:CMS:UHD28 I/O protection Instruction to change the mode must be privileged I/O operation are privileged instructions How can user program perform I/O? It makes a system call to OS. When a system call is made a trap instruction is executed: –sets the mode to supervisor mode –OS function verifies that parameters are correct and legal, executes the request, sets mode to user mode, and returns control to user program

29. CS4315A. Berrached:CMS:UHD29 Memory Protection

30. CS4315A. Berrached:CMS:UHD30 Example of Memory Protection

31. CS4315A. Berrached:CMS:UHD31 Protection Hardware